Complete English Grammar & Writing Mastery

A Step-by-Step Guide for School, Competitive Exams, Spoken English & Academic Writing

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–1: What Is Language & Grammar?

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1.1 Introduction

Language is the foundation of human communication. It allows us to express thoughts, emotions, ideas, knowledge, and culture. Among the many languages spoken worldwide, English has become a global language of education, business, science, technology, and international communication.

To use any language correctly and effectively, we must understand its grammar. Grammar gives structure to language and helps us convey our message clearly and accurately.

This chapter introduces the basic concepts of language and grammar, their definitions, importance, and relationship.

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1.2 What Is Language?

Language is a system of communication that uses words, sounds, symbols, and rules to express meaning.

📖 Definition:

Language is a method of communication by which human beings express their thoughts and feelings.

Language can be:

• Spoken (speech)
• Written (text)
• Sign-based (gestures, symbols)

🧠 Key Features of Language:

1. Systematic – follows rules
2. Symbolic – words represent ideas
3. Social – used in society
4. Dynamic – changes with time
5. Creative – unlimited expressions

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1.3 Types of Language

1. Mother Tongue – First language learned naturally
2. Second Language – Learned after mother tongue
3. Foreign Language – Used in other countries
4. Classical Language – Latin, Sanskrit
5. Modern Language – English, French, Hindi

👉 English is both a second language and an international language.

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1.4 Importance of English Language

English plays a vital role in modern life:

• 🌍 Global communication
• 🎓 Education & research
• 💼 Jobs & careers
• 🌐 Internet & technology
• ✈️ Travel & tourism
• 🧑‍💼 Competitive examinations

Because of this importance, correct English grammar is essential.

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1.5 What Is Grammar?

Grammar is the backbone of a language.

📖 Definition:

Grammar is the science of language that deals with the structure of words and sentences.

In simple words:

Grammar teaches us how to speak, read, and write correctly.

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1.6 Why Grammar Is Important

Without grammar:

• Sentences become confusing
• Meaning changes
• Communication fails

Example:

❌ Ram going school yesterday
✅ Ram went to school yesterday.

Grammar helps to:

1. Form correct sentences
2. Avoid mistakes
3. Improve writing skills
4. Speak confidently
5. Score well in exams

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1.7 Grammar vs Usage

Grammar	Usage
Rule-based	Practice-based
Formal	Practical
Fixed rules	Changes with time

Example:

• Grammar: It is I.
• Usage: It’s me. (commonly used)

Both are important, but grammar is the foundation.

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1.8 Components of English Grammar

English Grammar includes:

1. Parts of Speech
2. Sentence Structure
3. Tenses
4. Voice
5. Narration
6. Articles & Determiners
7. Punctuation
8. Syntax

Each topic will be discussed in detail in later chapters.

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1.9 Grammar and Communication

Correct grammar ensures:

• Clear meaning
• Proper tone
• Professional impression

Example:

❌ Please send me the document yesterday.
✅ Please send me the document by yesterday.

A small grammatical error can change the entire meaning.

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1.10 Common Myths About Grammar

❌ Grammar is difficult
❌ Grammar is only for exams
❌ Spoken English doesn’t need grammar

✅ Truth:

• Grammar becomes easy with practice
• Grammar improves speaking & writing
• Spoken English also needs basic grammar

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1.11 Grammar in Daily Life

Grammar is used in:

• Conversations
• Emails
• Social media
• Exams
• Interviews
• Official documents

Even simple messages need correct grammar.

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1.12 Learning Grammar the Right Way

Best method:

1. Understand rules
2. See examples
3. Practice daily
4. Identify mistakes
5. Correct yourself

This book follows exactly this method.

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1.13 Summary of the Chapter

• Language is a system of communication
• English is a global language
• Grammar provides structure to language
• Grammar is essential for correct communication
• Learning grammar improves confidence and accuracy

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1.14 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. Grammar is the ______ of language.
2. English is an ______ language.
3. Language is a system of ______.

B. True or False:

1. Grammar is not required in spoken English.
2. Language changes with time.
3. Grammar helps in competitive exams.

C. Short Answer Questions:

1. Define language.
2. What is grammar?
3. Why is grammar important?

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1.15 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. backbone
2. international
3. communication

True/False:

1. False
2. True
3. True

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–2: Importance of English in the Modern World

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2.1 Introduction

In today’s fast-changing world, English has become the most powerful and influential language. It is not only a subject taught in schools but also a global tool for communication, education, business, and technology. From classrooms to corporate offices, from the internet to international conferences, English plays a vital role everywhere.

Understanding the importance of English helps learners develop motivation and confidence to master the language and its grammar.

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2.2 English as a Global Language

English is spoken in more than 100 countries and is used by millions of people as:

• First language
• Second language
• Foreign language

🌍 Why English Is Called a Global Language:

1. Used in international communication
2. Common language for people of different nations
3. Language of global institutions
4. Widely accepted across cultures

English connects the world.

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2.3 English in Education

English is the main language of education in many countries.

🎓 Role of English in Education:

• Medium of instruction in schools & universities
• Language of competitive examinations
• Access to global knowledge
• Study abroad opportunities

Most textbooks, research papers, and online courses are available in English.

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2.4 English and Competitive Examinations

English is compulsory in almost all competitive exams:

• SSC
• Banking
• UPSC
• State PCS
• Railway
• Teaching exams (CTET, TET)

📘 English Helps in:

• Reading comprehension
• Grammar questions
• Essay & letter writing
• Interview performance

Good grammar = higher scores.

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2.5 English in Career & Employment

English is the language of employment.

💼 Importance in Jobs:

• Required in private & government jobs
• Essential for interviews
• Used in official communication
• Improves promotion chances

Employees with good English skills earn better salaries and get better positions.

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2.6 English in Business & Trade

English is the official language of:

• International trade
• Multinational companies
• Corporate communication

🏢 Used in:

• Emails
• Meetings
• Reports
• Presentations
• Contracts

Business without English is incomplete in the modern world.

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2.7 English and Technology

English dominates the world of technology.

💻 English in Technology:

• Computer software
• Mobile applications
• Programming languages
• Internet & social media

Most technical terms and instructions are in English.

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2.8 English and the Internet

Over 60% of internet content is in English.

🌐 English Online:

• Websites
• Blogs
• Online courses
• YouTube
• Social media

To use the internet effectively, English knowledge is essential.

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2.9 English in Science & Research

English is the language of science.

• Research papers
• Medical journals
• Scientific discoveries
• International conferences

Scientists use English to share knowledge globally.

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2.10 English and Travel

English helps travelers worldwide.

✈️ Used at:

• Airports
• Hotels
• Tourist places
• International transport

English acts as a common language for travelers.

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2.11 English and Personality Development

Learning English improves:

• Confidence
• Communication skills
• Social status
• Leadership quality

Correct grammar makes speech clear and impressive.

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2.12 English in Daily Life

English is used in:

• Mobile phones
• Advertisements
• News
• Movies
• Music
• Social media posts

Even daily conversations include English words.

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2.13 English Grammar and Accuracy

Knowing English is not enough; correct grammar is essential.

❌ He don’t know English.
✅ He doesn’t know English.

Grammar ensures:

• Correct meaning
• Professional impression
• Clear communication

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2.14 Challenges Without English

Without English:

• Limited job options
• Poor communication
• Lower confidence
• Difficulty in higher studies

Hence, learning English is a necessity, not a luxury.

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2.15 How This Book Helps You

This book will help you:

• Understand grammar easily
• Improve spoken English
• Write correctly
• Prepare for exams
• Communicate confidently

Step-by-step learning is provided.

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2.16 Summary of the Chapter

• English is a global language
• Essential for education & career
• Important for exams & interviews
• Used in technology & internet
• Grammar improves accuracy

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2.17 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. English is a ______ language.
2. English is important for ______ examinations.
3. Most internet content is in ______.

B. True or False:

1. English is not useful in technology.
2. English improves personality.
3. Grammar is not important in English.

C. Short Answer Questions:

1. Why is English important today?
2. Write two uses of English in career.
3. How does English help in education?

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2.18 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. global
2. competitive
3. English

True/False:

1. False
2. True
3. False

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–3: History and Growth of the English Language

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3.1 Introduction

The English language did not develop overnight. It is the result of centuries of change, influence, and evolution. English has borrowed words, grammar, and expressions from many languages and cultures. Understanding the history of English helps learners appreciate its richness and flexibility.

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3.2 Origin of the English Language

English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages.

🌍 Language Family:

• Indo-European
  • Germanic
    • West Germanic
      • English

English developed mainly from the Germanic tribes that invaded Britain in the 5th century.

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3.3 Old English Period (450–1100 AD)

Old English was very different from modern English.

🏰 Influences:

• Angles
• Saxons
• Jutes

📜 Features of Old English:

• Heavy grammar rules
• Many inflections
• German-like structure
• Difficult to understand today

Example:

Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum
(Opening line of Beowulf)

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3.4 Scandinavian Influence

The Vikings invaded England between the 8th and 11th centuries.

🛡️ Contributions:

• Words like sky, egg, leg, knife
• Simpler grammar
• Strong influence on pronunciation

This made English easier and more flexible.

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3.5 Middle English Period (1100–1500 AD)

This period began after the Norman Conquest (1066).

🇫🇷 French Influence:

• Government: court, judge
• Law: crime, justice
• Fashion: dress, jewel
• Food: beef, mutton

Grammar became simpler, and vocabulary expanded.

Example (Chaucer):

Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote

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3.6 Modern English Period (1500–Present)

Modern English developed during the Renaissance.

📚 Key Influences:

• Latin & Greek words
• Printing press (William Caxton)
• Standard spelling
• Dictionaries & grammar books

Shakespeare contributed over 1,700 words to English.

Examples:

• ambition
• lonely
• majestic

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3.7 Role of the Printing Press

The printing press:

• Standardized spelling
• Increased literacy
• Spread English widely

Books became affordable and accessible.

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3.8 Expansion Through British Empire

English spread worldwide due to:

• British colonization
• Trade & administration
• Education system

Countries like India, Australia, Canada, and Africa adopted English.

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3.9 English in India

English came to India during British rule.

🇮🇳 Role in India:

• Medium of education
• Administrative language
• Link language
• Competitive exams

Today, English is an associate official language in India.

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3.10 American English

American English developed separately.

🇺🇸 Differences:

• Spelling: color (US) / colour (UK)
• Vocabulary: truck / lorry
• Pronunciation variations

Both forms are correct.

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3.11 Global Varieties of English

English has many forms:

• British English
• American English
• Indian English
• Australian English

All follow the same basic grammar.

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3.12 Growth of Vocabulary

English has the largest vocabulary in the world.

Sources:

• Latin
• Greek
• French
• Hindi
• Arabic

Example:

• bungalow (Hindi)
• algebra (Arabic)

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3.13 Why English Is Flexible

English is flexible because:

• Borrows words easily
• Simple grammar structure
• Accepts change

This adaptability made English global.

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3.14 Grammar Changes Over Time

Earlier English had:

• Gender-based nouns
• Case endings

Modern English:

• Fewer inflections
• Fixed word order
• Simple sentence structure

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3.15 Summary of the Chapter

• English evolved over centuries
• Passed through Old, Middle & Modern stages
• Influenced by many languages
• Spread globally through colonization
• Continues to grow and change

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3.16 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. English belongs to the ______ language family.
2. Norman Conquest happened in ______.
3. Shakespeare added many ______ to English.

B. True or False:

1. Old English is easy to understand today.
2. Printing press helped standardize English.
3. English borrowed words from Hindi.

C. Short Answer Questions:

1. Name the three periods of English.
2. How did English come to India?
3. Why is English called a flexible language?

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3.17 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. Indo-European
2. 1066
3. words

True/False:

1. False
2. True
3. True

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–4: Parts of Speech – An Overview

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4.1 Introduction

Every sentence in English is made up of words, and each word has a specific role to play. These roles are called Parts of Speech. Understanding parts of speech is the first and most important step in learning English grammar.

Without knowing parts of speech, it is impossible to form correct sentences or understand grammar rules clearly.

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4.2 What Are Parts of Speech?

Parts of Speech are the categories into which words are divided according to their function in a sentence.

📖 Definition:

Parts of speech are the different classes of words used in a sentence based on their function.

Each word in a sentence belongs to one part of speech.

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4.3 Why Parts of Speech Are Important

Parts of speech help us to:

• Understand sentence structure
• Identify grammatical errors
• Use words correctly
• Improve writing and speaking skills
• Learn advanced grammar topics easily

They are the foundation of all grammar rules.

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4.4 Traditional Parts of Speech

There are eight traditional parts of speech in English:

1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
4. Adjective
5. Adverb
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection

(Some grammarians also include Articles/Determiners separately.)

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4.5 Noun

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

Examples:

• Person: Ram, teacher
• Place: school, India
• Thing: book, pen
• Idea: honesty, freedom

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4.6 Pronoun

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.

Examples:

• Ram is a student. He is intelligent.

Common pronouns: he, she, it, they, we, I

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4.7 Verb

A verb shows action or state of being.

Examples:

• Action: run, write, eat
• State: is, am, are

Every sentence must have a verb.

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4.8 Adjective

An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.

Examples:

• a beautiful flower
• an honest man

Adjectives answer:

• What kind?
• How many?
• Which one?

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4.9 Adverb

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Examples:

• He runs fast.
• She is very intelligent.

Adverbs often end in -ly.

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4.10 Preposition

A preposition shows the relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word.

Examples:

• The book is on the table.
• She is in the room.

Common prepositions: in, on, at, by, with, under

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4.11 Conjunction

A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

Examples:

• Ram and Shyam are friends.
• He is poor but honest.

Common conjunctions: and, but, or, because

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4.12 Interjection

An interjection expresses sudden feelings or emotions.

Examples:

• Oh!, Wow!, Alas!, Hurrah!

Interjections are often followed by an exclamation mark (!).

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4.13 Articles and Determiners

Articles:

• A, An, The

Determiners include:

• this, that, these, those
• my, your, his, her
• some, any, much, many

They limit or define nouns.

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4.14 Words with Multiple Functions

Some words can act as different parts of speech.

Example:

• I drink water. (Verb)
• Give me a drink. (Noun)

Meaning depends on usage.

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4.15 Parts of Speech in a Sentence

Sentence:

The small boy runs quickly.

Word	Part of Speech
The	Article
small	Adjective
boy	Noun
runs	Verb
quickly	Adverb

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4.16 Common Mistakes

❌ She is beauty.
✅ She is beautiful.

❌ He quickly runs.
✅ He runs quickly.

Understanding parts of speech helps avoid such errors.

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4.17 Summary of the Chapter

• Words are divided into parts of speech
• There are eight main parts of speech
• Each word has a specific function
• Parts of speech form the base of grammar

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4.18 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the parts of speech:

1. Honesty is the best policy.
2. She sings beautifully.
3. The cat is under the table.

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. A verb shows ______ or state.
2. A pronoun is used in place of a ______.
3. Words like “wow” are called ______.

C. Short Answer Questions:

1. What are parts of speech?
2. Name any four parts of speech.
3. Why are parts of speech important?

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4.19 Answer Key

Identify:

1. Honesty (Noun)
2. beautifully (Adverb)
3. under (Preposition)

Fill in the blanks:

1. action
2. noun
3. interjections

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–5: Sentence Structure – Basics

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5.1 Introduction

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Correct sentence structure is essential for clear communication. Even if all words are correct, poor sentence structure can confuse the reader or listener.

This chapter explains what a sentence is, its parts, and how sentences are formed in English.

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5.2 What Is a Sentence?

📖 Definition:

A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense.

Examples:

• I read a book.
• She is a teacher.

Incomplete group of words is not a sentence:

• ❌ Because he was late.

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5.3 Essential Elements of a Sentence

Every sentence must have:

1. Subject
2. Predicate (Verb)

Without these two, a sentence is incomplete.

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5.4 Subject

The subject is the person, place, thing, or idea about which something is said.

Examples:

• Ram plays cricket.
• The sun rises in the east.

The subject usually comes before the verb.

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5.5 Predicate

The predicate tells something about the subject.

Examples:

• Ram plays cricket.
• The sun rises in the east.

Predicate includes the verb and other related words.

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5.6 Subject–Verb Agreement (Basic Idea)

The verb must agree with the subject in number and person.

Examples:

• He runs.
• They run.

❌ He run.
✅ He runs.

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5.7 Object

An object receives the action of the verb.

Examples:

• She writes a letter.
• He bought a car.

Types of objects:

• Direct Object
• Indirect Object

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5.8 Word Order in English

English follows a fixed word order:

Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)

Examples:

• She eats an apple.
• They play football.

Wrong word order causes errors.

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5.9 Types of Sentences (By Structure)

1. Simple Sentence – One subject and one verb
   • I like tea.
2. Compound Sentence – Two independent clauses
   • I like tea, and he likes coffee.
3. Complex Sentence – One main clause + one subordinate clause
   • I know that he is honest.

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5.10 Types of Sentences (By Purpose)

1. Declarative – Statement
   • She is happy.
2. Interrogative – Question
   • Are you ready?
3. Imperative – Command
   • Close the door.
4. Exclamatory – Strong feeling
   • What a beautiful day!

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5.11 Capital Letters and Full Stop

Rules:

• Sentence begins with a capital letter
• Ends with:
  • Full stop (.)
  • Question mark (?)
  • Exclamation mark (!)

Correct punctuation completes sentence structure.

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5.12 Fragments and Run-on Sentences

❌ Fragment:

• After the rain.

✅ Correct:

• After the rain, the roads were wet.

❌ Run-on:

• I like English I study daily.

✅ Correct:

• I like English, and I study daily.

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5.13 Negative Sentences

Negative sentences use:

• not, never, no

Examples:

• She does not like coffee.
• He never lies.

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5.14 Interrogative Sentences

Questions are formed by:

• Auxiliary verbs
• Wh-words

Examples:

• Do you like tea?
• Where do you live?

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5.15 Common Sentence Errors

❌ She going school.
✅ She is going to school.

❌ Me and Ram are friends.
✅ Ram and I are friends.

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5.16 Summary of the Chapter

• Sentence expresses a complete thought
• Subject and verb are essential
• English follows SVO order
• Correct structure improves clarity

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5.17 Practice Exercises

A. Identify subject and predicate:

1. The children are playing.
2. My brother bought a laptop.

B. Correct the sentences:

1. He going market.
2. She like music.

C. Make sentences:

1. Using “run”
2. Using “book”

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5.18 Answer Key

Identify:

1. Subject: children | Predicate: are playing
2. Subject: brother | Predicate: bought a laptop

Corrections:

1. He is going to the market.
2. She likes music.

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–6: Kinds of Sentences

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6.1 Introduction

Sentences are not all of the same type. We use different kinds of sentences to state facts, ask questions, give orders, or express emotions. Understanding the kinds of sentences helps us communicate clearly and correctly in both spoken and written English.

In English grammar, sentences are commonly classified according to their purpose.

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6.2 Classification of Sentences

There are four main kinds of sentences:

1. Assertive (Declarative) Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
4. Exclamatory Sentence

Each kind has a specific function.

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6.3 Assertive (Declarative) Sentence

An assertive sentence makes a statement or expresses a fact or opinion.

📖 Definition:

A sentence that states something is called an assertive sentence.

Examples:

• The sun rises in the east.
• She is a good student.
• I like reading books.

Assertive sentences usually end with a full stop (.).

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6.4 Negative Assertive Sentences

When an assertive sentence is made negative, it uses not, never, no, etc.

Examples:

• He does not smoke.
• She never tells a lie.

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6.5 Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a question.

📖 Definition:

A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.

Examples:

• What is your name?
• Do you like tea?
• Where are you going?

Interrogative sentences end with a question mark (?).

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6.6 Types of Interrogative Sentences

1. Yes/No Questions
   • Are you ready?
2. Wh-Questions
   • Where do you live?
3. Tag Questions
   • You are coming, aren’t you?

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6.7 Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence expresses a command, request, advice, or instruction.

📖 Definition:

A sentence that expresses an order, request, or advice is called an imperative sentence.

Examples:

• Close the door.
• Please help me.
• Do not make noise.

The subject “you” is usually understood but not written.

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6.8 Negative Imperative Sentences

Negative imperatives begin with Do not / Don’t.

Examples:

• Do not waste time.
• Don’t be late.

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6.9 Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings like joy, sorrow, surprise, or anger.

📖 Definition:

A sentence that expresses strong emotion is called an exclamatory sentence.

Examples:

• What a beautiful flower!
• How smart you are!
• Alas! He is dead.

Exclamatory sentences end with an exclamation mark (!).

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6.10 Structure of Exclamatory Sentences

Common patterns:

• What + adjective + noun + subject + verb!
  • What a lovely day it is!
• How + adjective/adverb + subject + verb!
  • How fast he runs!

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6.11 Interjection as Exclamation

Sometimes a single word expresses emotion.

Examples:

• Oh!
• Wow!
• Hurrah!
• Alas!

These are often followed by exclamatory sentences.

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6.12 Changing One Kind of Sentence into Another

Assertive → Interrogative

• He is honest.
• Is he honest?

Assertive → Exclamatory

• It is a very beautiful scene.
• What a beautiful scene it is!

Imperative → Assertive

• Close the door.
• You should close the door.

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6.13 Common Mistakes

❌ What a nice day.
✅ What a nice day it is!

❌ Close the door?
✅ Close the door.

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6.14 Use of Punctuation

Sentence Type	End Mark
Assertive	.
Interrogative	?
Imperative	. / !
Exclamatory	!

Correct punctuation is very important.

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6.15 Summary of the Chapter

• Sentences are classified by purpose
• Four main kinds of sentences
• Each kind has its own structure
• Correct use improves communication

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6.16 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the kind of sentence:

1. Please open the window.
2. What is your hobby?
3. The earth moves around the sun.
4. How beautiful the moon looks!

B. Change into interrogative:

1. She is your sister.
2. They are ready.

C. Change into exclamatory:

1. It is a very interesting story.

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6.17 Answer Key

Identify:

1. Imperative
2. Interrogative
3. Assertive
4. Exclamatory

Interrogative:

1. Is she your sister?
2. Are they ready?

Exclamatory:

1. What an interesting story it is!

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–7: Phrase and Clause

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7.1 Introduction

While forming sentences, words are often grouped together to express meaning. These groups of words are called phrases and clauses. Understanding the difference between a phrase and a clause is essential for learning sentence structure, transformation, and advanced grammar.

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7.2 What Is a Phrase?

📖 Definition:

A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a verb and does not express a complete thought.

A phrase adds meaning to a sentence but cannot stand alone.

Examples:

• in the morning
• a bunch of flowers
• very beautiful

❌ In the room. (Not a complete sentence)

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7.3 Types of Phrases

1. Noun Phrase

Contains a noun and its modifiers.

Examples:

• a beautiful girl
• the tall building

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2. Verb Phrase

Contains a main verb and helping verbs.

Examples:

• is writing
• has been completed

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3. Adjective Phrase

Acts like an adjective.

Examples:

• very intelligent
• full of joy

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4. Adverb Phrase

Acts like an adverb.

Examples:

• very quickly
• quite slowly

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5. Prepositional Phrase

Begins with a preposition and ends with a noun/pronoun.

Examples:

• in the box
• on the table

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7.4 What Is a Clause?

📖 Definition:

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb.

A clause may or may not express a complete thought.

Examples:

• She is singing.
• because he was late

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7.5 Types of Clauses

Clauses are mainly of two types:

1. Independent (Main) Clause
2. Dependent (Subordinate) Clause

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7.6 Independent Clause

An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence.

Examples:

• I like coffee.
• He works hard.

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7.7 Dependent Clause

A dependent clause cannot stand alone and depends on a main clause.

Examples:

• because it was raining
• who is my friend

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7.8 Types of Dependent Clauses

1. Noun Clause

Acts as a noun.

Example:

• I know that he is honest.

---

2. Adjective Clause

Describes a noun.

Example:

• This is the boy who won the prize.

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3. Adverb Clause

Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb.

Example:

• I will wait until you come.

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7.9 Phrase vs Clause (Difference)

Phrase	Clause
No subject & verb	Has subject & verb
Incomplete meaning	May have complete meaning
Cannot stand alone	Independent clause can

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7.10 Identifying Phrase and Clause

Sentence:

The boy in the red shirt who is standing there is my brother.

• Phrase: in the red shirt
• Clause: who is standing there

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7.11 Importance in Grammar

Understanding phrases and clauses helps in:

• Sentence formation
• Sentence transformation
• Active–Passive voice
• Direct–Indirect speech
• Error detection

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7.12 Common Errors

❌ Because he was ill.
(Incorrect – fragment)

✅ He did not come because he was ill.

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7.13 Summary of the Chapter

• Phrase has no subject and verb
• Clause has subject and verb
• Clauses can be independent or dependent
• Phrases and clauses build sentences

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7.14 Practice Exercises

A. Identify phrase or clause:

1. in the morning
2. because she was tired
3. the blue sky
4. he is my friend

B. Identify the type of clause:

1. I know that she is right.
2. This is the book which I bought.
3. He ran because he was late.

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7.15 Answer Key

Phrase or Clause:

1. Phrase
2. Clause
3. Phrase
4. Clause

Types of Clause:

1. Noun clause
2. Adjective clause
3. Adverb clause

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📘 PART–1: FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH

Chapter–8: Subject and Predicate

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8.1 Introduction

Every sentence in English is divided into two main parts: the Subject and the Predicate. Understanding these two parts is essential for sentence construction, error correction, and advanced grammar topics like agreement, voice, and narration.

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8.2 What Is a Subject?

📖 Definition:

The subject is the part of a sentence about which something is said.

The subject tells who or what performs the action or is being discussed.

Examples:

• Ram plays cricket.
• The sun shines brightly.

Here, Ram and The sun are subjects.

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8.3 Simple Subject

The simple subject is the main noun or pronoun in the subject.

Examples:

• The clever boy won the prize.
  • Simple subject: boy
• My younger sister is singing.
  • Simple subject: sister

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8.4 Complete Subject

The complete subject includes the simple subject and all its modifiers.

Examples:

• The clever boy won the prize.
• My younger sister is singing.

Complete subject = modifiers + noun/pronoun.

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8.5 What Is a Predicate?

📖 Definition:

The predicate is the part of the sentence that tells something about the subject.

It includes the verb and all words related to the verb.

Examples:

• Ram plays cricket.
• The sun shines brightly.

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8.6 Simple Predicate

The simple predicate is the main verb or verb phrase in the predicate.

Examples:

• She has completed her work.
  • Simple predicate: has completed
• They are playing outside.
  • Simple predicate: are playing

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8.7 Complete Predicate

The complete predicate includes the verb and all objects, complements, and modifiers.

Examples:

• She has completed her work on time.
• They are playing outside in the park.

---

8.8 Identifying Subject and Predicate

Sentence:

The little girl with blue eyes is reading a story.

• Complete Subject: The little girl with blue eyes
• Complete Predicate: is reading a story

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8.9 Subject in Imperative Sentences

In imperative sentences, the subject “you” is understood but not written.

Examples:

• (You) Close the door.
• (You) Please listen carefully.

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8.10 Compound Subject

A compound subject consists of two or more subjects joined by a conjunction.

Examples:

• Ram and Shyam are friends.
• Tea and coffee are popular drinks.

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8.11 Compound Predicate

A compound predicate contains two or more verbs.

Examples:

• She sings and dances.
• He came, saw, and conquered.

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8.12 Agreement of Subject and Predicate

The verb in the predicate must agree with the subject.

Examples:

• He runs fast.
• They run fast.

Wrong agreement causes grammatical errors.

---

8.13 Predicate Adjective and Predicate Noun

Some predicates describe the subject.

• Predicate Adjective:
  • The sky is blue.
• Predicate Noun:
  • My father is a teacher.

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8.14 Common Errors

❌ The list of items are on the table.
✅ The list of items is on the table.

(Subject = list, not items)

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8.15 Importance in Grammar

Understanding subject and predicate helps in:

• Sentence correction
• Subject–verb agreement
• Transformation of sentences
• Writing error-free English

---

8.16 Summary of the Chapter

• Sentence has subject and predicate
• Subject tells who or what
• Predicate tells what is said
• Agreement is essential

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8.17 Practice Exercises

A. Identify subject and predicate:

1. The birds are flying in the sky.
2. My best friend helped me.

B. Identify simple subject and simple predicate:

1. The tall trees were swaying.
2. She has finished her homework.

C. Make sentences:

1. Using a compound subject
2. Using a compound predicate

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8.18 Answer Key

Identify:

1. Subject: birds | Predicate: are flying in the sky
2. Subject: friend | Predicate: helped me

Simple:

1. Subject: trees | Predicate: were swaying
2. Subject: she | Predicate: has finished

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–9: Noun

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9.1 Introduction

A noun is the most important part of speech. It is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Almost every sentence contains a noun, and without nouns, meaningful communication is impossible.

This chapter explains the definition, types, rules, examples, common errors, and practice exercises related to nouns in a clear and exam-oriented manner.

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9.2 Definition of Noun

📖 Definition:

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, animal, or abstract idea.

Examples:

• Person: teacher, Ram
• Place: school, India
• Thing: book, table
• Animal: dog, lion
• Idea: honesty, beauty

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9.3 Types of Nouns

Nouns are classified into five main types:

1. Proper Noun
2. Common Noun
3. Collective Noun
4. Material Noun
5. Abstract Noun

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9.4 Proper Noun

A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing.

Features:

• Begins with a capital letter
• Refers to a particular name

Examples:

• Ram, Sita
• Delhi, India
• Ganga
• Monday

❌ i live in delhi.
✅ I live in Delhi.

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9.5 Common Noun

A common noun is the general name of a person, place, or thing.

Examples:

• Person: boy, teacher
• Place: city, school
• Thing: book, pen

Example:

• Ram is a boy.
  (boy = common noun)

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9.6 Collective Noun

A collective noun refers to a group of people, animals, or things considered as one unit.

Examples:

• team, class, army
• herd of cattle
• flock of birds

Example:

• The team is playing well.

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9.7 Material Noun

A material noun refers to substances or materials from which things are made.

Examples:

• gold, iron, wood, water, milk

Material nouns usually do not have plural forms.

❌ golds
✅ gold

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9.8 Abstract Noun

An abstract noun refers to qualities, feelings, states, or ideas that cannot be seen or touched.

Examples:

• honesty, beauty, bravery, childhood

Abstract nouns are formed from:

• Adjectives: kind → kindness
• Verbs: decide → decision

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9.9 Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns:

• Can be counted
• Have singular and plural forms

Examples:

• book, apple, student

Uncountable Nouns:

• Cannot be counted
• Usually singular

Examples:

• milk, sugar, information

❌ informations
✅ information

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9.10 Singular and Plural Nouns

Rules to form plurals:

1. Add –s
   • book → books
2. Add –es (s, sh, ch, x, o)
   • box → boxes
3. Change y to ies
   • baby → babies
4. Irregular plurals
   • man → men
   • child → children

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9.11 Gender of Nouns

Types of gender:

1. Masculine
2. Feminine
3. Common
4. Neuter

Examples:

• boy – girl
• teacher – teacher
• table – table

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9.12 Possessive Case of Nouns

Possession is shown using ’s.

Examples:

• Ram’s book
• The girl’s bag

Plural nouns ending in s:

• boys’ hostel

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9.13 Uses of Nouns in Sentences

Nouns can be used as:

• Subject
• Object
• Complement

Example:

• Honesty is the best policy.

---

9.14 Common Errors

❌ She gave me many informations.
✅ She gave me much information.

❌ The sceneries are beautiful.
✅ The scenery is beautiful.

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9.15 Summary of the Chapter

• Noun names person, place, thing, or idea
• Five main types of nouns
• Countable and uncountable nouns differ
• Correct usage avoids errors

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9.16 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the type of noun:

1. Honesty
2. Delhi
3. Team
4. Gold

B. Change into plural:

1. child
2. leaf
3. city

C. Correct the sentences:

1. He gave me many advices.
2. The furnitures are costly.

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9.17 Answer Key

Types:

1. Abstract noun
2. Proper noun
3. Collective noun
4. Material noun

Plural:

1. children
2. leaves
3. cities

Corrections:

1. He gave me much advice.
2. The furniture is costly.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–10: Pronoun

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10.1 Introduction

A pronoun is used in place of a noun to avoid repetition and make sentences smoother and clearer. Pronouns help us speak and write naturally, clearly, and effectively. Incorrect use of pronouns often leads to confusion and grammatical errors, especially in exams and formal writing.

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10.2 Definition of Pronoun

📖 Definition:

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

Example:

• Ram is a good boy. He studies hard.

Here, he is a pronoun replacing Ram.

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10.3 Why Pronouns Are Important

Pronouns:

• Avoid repetition
• Improve sentence flow
• Make communication clear
• Are essential for spoken and written English

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10.4 Types of Pronouns

There are eight main types of pronouns:

1. Personal Pronoun
2. Possessive Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Demonstrative Pronoun
5. Relative Pronoun
6. Interrogative Pronoun
7. Indefinite Pronoun
8. Reciprocal Pronoun

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10.5 Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to persons or things.

Forms of Personal Pronouns:

Person	Subject	Object
First	I, We	me, us
Second	You	you
Third	He, She, It, They	him, her, it, them

Examples:

• She is my friend.
• I met him yesterday.

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10.6 Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns show ownership.

Possessive Adjective	Possessive Pronoun
my	mine
your	yours
his	his
her	hers
our	ours
their	theirs

Examples:

• This book is mine.
• That house is hers.

❌ This is my book mine.
✅ This book is mine.

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10.7 Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject.

Examples:

• myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves

Examples:

• He hurt himself.
• She did the work herself.

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10.8 Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point out specific persons or things.

• this, that, these, those

Examples:

• This is my pen.
• Those are beautiful flowers.

---

10.9 Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce adjective clauses.

• who, whom, whose, which, that

Examples:

• This is the boy who won the prize.
• The book which I bought is new.

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10.10 Interrogative Pronouns

Used to ask questions.

• who, whom, whose, what, which

Examples:

• Who is calling you?
• Which is your bag?

---

10.11 Indefinite Pronouns

Refer to persons or things in a general way.

Examples:

• someone, anyone, everyone, nobody, many, few, all, some

Examples:

• Everyone knows the truth.
• Few were absent.

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10.12 Reciprocal Pronouns

Used to express mutual actions.

• each other, one another

Examples:

• The two friends helped each other.
• The students greeted one another.

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10.13 Agreement of Pronoun with Antecedent

A pronoun must agree with the noun it replaces (antecedent).

❌ Everyone forgot their book.
✅ Everyone forgot his or her book. (formal)

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10.14 Position of Pronouns

Correct order of personal pronouns:

You + He + I

Example:

• You, he, and I will attend the meeting.

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10.15 Common Errors

❌ Me and Ram are friends.
✅ Ram and I are friends.

❌ Each of the students have done their work.
✅ Each of the students has done his work.

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10.16 Summary of the Chapter

• Pronoun replaces a noun
• Different types of pronouns
• Agreement with antecedent is necessary
• Correct usage avoids repetition and confusion

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10.17 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. Ram is my friend. ____ is honest.
2. This pen is ____.
3. They hurt ____ while playing.

B. Identify the type of pronoun:

1. who
2. myself
3. someone

C. Correct the sentences:

1. Her is my sister.
2. Me and him went there.

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10.18 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. He
2. mine
3. themselves

Types:

1. Relative pronoun
2. Reflexive pronoun
3. Indefinite pronoun

Corrections:

1. She is my sister.
2. He and I went there.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–11: Verb

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11.1 Introduction

A verb is the most important part of a sentence because it shows action, state, or occurrence. No sentence in English can be complete without a verb. Correct use of verbs is essential for tense, voice, narration, and sentence formation.

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11.2 Definition of Verb

📖 Definition:

A verb is a word that expresses an action, state of being, or possession.

Examples:

• Action: run, write, eat
• State: is, am, are
• Possession: have, own

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11.3 Importance of Verb

Verbs:

• Show what the subject does
• Indicate time (tense)
• Form statements, questions, and negatives
• Are essential for communication

---

11.4 Types of Verbs

Verbs are broadly classified into:

1. Main (Lexical) Verb
2. Auxiliary (Helping) Verb

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11.5 Main Verbs

Main verbs express the main action or state.

Examples:

• She writes a letter.
• They play football.

Main verbs can stand alone.

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11.6 Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs help the main verb to form tense, voice, mood, and questions.

Common Auxiliary Verbs:

• Be: is, am, are, was, were
• Have: has, have, had
• Do: do, does, did

Examples:

• She is writing.
• They have finished the work.

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11.7 Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Modal verbs express ability, permission, possibility, obligation, or advice.

Common Modals:

• can, could
• may, might
• shall, should
• will, would
• must, ought to

Examples:

• I can swim.
• You must obey the rules.

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11.8 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verb:

Requires an object.

• She wrote a letter.

Intransitive Verb:

Does not require an object.

• The baby slept.

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11.9 Finite and Non-finite Verbs

Finite Verb:

• Changes with subject and tense
• Acts as main verb

Example:

• He goes to school.

Non-finite Verb:

• Does not change with subject
• Forms: Infinitive, Gerund, Participle

Example:

• To read is good.

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11.10 Regular and Irregular Verbs

Regular Verbs:

Form past tense by adding -ed.

• play → played

Irregular Verbs:

Do not follow this rule.

• go → went
• eat → ate

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11.11 Linking Verbs

Linking verbs connect the subject to a complement.

Common linking verbs:

• is, am, are
• seem, appear, become

Example:

• She is intelligent.

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11.12 Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb consists of a verb + preposition/adverb.

Examples:

• give up (quit)
• look after (care)

Example sentence:

• He gave up smoking.

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11.13 Verb Forms (V1, V2, V3)

Base (V1)	Past (V2)	Past Participle (V3)
go	went	gone
eat	ate	eaten
write	wrote	written

These forms are essential for tense and voice.

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11.14 Subject–Verb Agreement

The verb must agree with the subject.

❌ She go to school.
✅ She goes to school.

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11.15 Common Errors

❌ He don’t like coffee.
✅ He doesn’t like coffee.

❌ She is having a car.
✅ She has a car.

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11.16 Summary of the Chapter

• Verb expresses action or state
• Main and auxiliary verbs
• Modals show attitude
• Correct form avoids errors

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11.17 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the verb:

1. She is singing a song.
2. They have completed the work.

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. He ____ (go) to school daily.
2. She ____ (write) a letter yesterday.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. He do his work well.
2. They was playing.

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11.18 Answer Key

Identify:

1. is singing
2. have completed

Fill in the blanks:

1. goes
2. wrote

Corrections:

1. He does his work well.
2. They were playing.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–12: Tense

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12.1 Introduction

Tense shows the time of an action. It tells us when something happens—whether it is in the present, past, or future. Tense is one of the most important and scoring topics in English grammar, especially for school exams, competitive exams, and spoken English.

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12.2 Definition of Tense

📖 Definition:

Tense is the form of a verb that shows the time of an action.

Example:

• I eat food. (Present)
• I ate food. (Past)
• I will eat food. (Future)

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12.3 Kinds of Tense

There are three main tenses:

1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense

Each tense has four sub-types, making 12 tenses in total.

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🔵 PRESENT TENSE

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12.4 Present Indefinite (Simple Present) Tense

Structure:

Subject + V1 / V1+s/es

Uses:

• Daily habits
• Universal truths
• General facts

Examples:

• I play cricket.
• She plays cricket.
• The sun rises in the east.

❌ He go to school.
✅ He goes to school.

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12.5 Present Continuous Tense

Structure:

Subject + is/am/are + V1 + ing

Uses:

• Action happening now
• Temporary actions

Examples:

• She is reading a book.
• They are playing outside.

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12.6 Present Perfect Tense

Structure:

Subject + has/have + V3

Uses:

• Recently completed action
• Action with result in present

Examples:

• I have finished my work.
• She has gone to Delhi.

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12.7 Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Structure:

Subject + has/have + been + V1 + ing + since/for

Uses:

• Action started in past and continuing

Examples:

• He has been working here for five years.
• They have been waiting since morning.

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🟠 PAST TENSE

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12.8 Past Indefinite (Simple Past) Tense

Structure:

Subject + V2

Uses:

• Completed action in the past

Examples:

• She wrote a letter.
• They played football.

---

12.9 Past Continuous Tense

Structure:

Subject + was/were + V1 + ing

Uses:

• Action going on in past

Examples:

• He was sleeping.
• They were watching TV.

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12.10 Past Perfect Tense

Structure:

Subject + had + V3

Uses:

• Earlier past action

Examples:

• She had finished the work before I came.

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12.11 Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Structure:

Subject + had + been + V1 + ing + since/for

Examples:

• He had been studying for two hours.

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🟢 FUTURE TENSE

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12.12 Future Indefinite (Simple Future) Tense

Structure:

Subject + will/shall + V1

Examples:

• I will help you.
• She will come tomorrow.

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12.13 Future Continuous Tense

Structure:

Subject + will be + V1 + ing

Examples:

• They will be traveling tomorrow.

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12.14 Future Perfect Tense

Structure:

Subject + will have + V3

Examples:

• She will have completed the work.

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12.15 Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Structure:

Subject + will have been + V1 + ing + since/for

Examples:

• He will have been working here for ten years.

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12.16 Common Tense Errors

❌ She has ate food.
✅ She has eaten food.

❌ I am knowing him.
✅ I know him.

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12.17 Tense Table (Quick Revision)

Tense	Structure
Present Indefinite	V1 / V1+s
Present Continuous	is/am/are + ing
Present Perfect	has/have + V3
Past Indefinite	V2
Future Indefinite	will + V1

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12.18 Summary of the Chapter

• Tense shows time of action
• 3 main tenses, 12 forms
• Correct tense improves clarity
• Essential for exams & speaking

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12.19 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. She ____ (go) to school daily.
2. They ____ (play) football now.
3. He ____ (finish) the work yesterday.

B. Change into past tense:

1. I write a letter.
2. She eats food.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. He has went home.
2. They is playing.

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12.20 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. goes
2. are playing
3. finished

Past tense:

1. I wrote a letter.
2. She ate food.

Corrections:

1. He has gone home.
2. They are playing.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–13: Adjective

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13.1 Introduction

An adjective adds meaning to a noun or pronoun. It describes quality, quantity, number, size, color, or condition. Adjectives make language clear, attractive, and expressive. Without adjectives, sentences become dull and unclear.

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13.2 Definition of Adjective

📖 Definition:

An adjective is a word that describes or qualifies a noun or pronoun.

Examples:

• a beautiful flower
• an honest man
• five students

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13.3 Importance of Adjectives

Adjectives help us to:

• Describe things clearly
• Express feelings and opinions
• Improve writing and speaking
• Make sentences interesting

---

13.4 Types of Adjectives

Adjectives are classified into eight main types:

1. Adjective of Quality
2. Adjective of Quantity
3. Adjective of Number
4. Demonstrative Adjective
5. Possessive Adjective
6. Interrogative Adjective
7. Distributive Adjective
8. Proper Adjective

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13.5 Adjective of Quality

Describes the kind or quality of a noun.

Examples:

• honest man
• beautiful scenery
• brave soldier

---

13.6 Adjective of Quantity

Shows how much of something.

Examples:

• some water
• little money
• much effort

Used with uncountable nouns.

---

13.7 Adjective of Number

Shows how many or which number.

Examples:

• two books
• first prize
• many students

Used with countable nouns.

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13.8 Demonstrative Adjective

Points out a specific noun.

• this, that, these, those

Examples:

• this book
• those houses

---

13.9 Possessive Adjective

Shows ownership.

• my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Examples:

• my pen
• her bag

❌ This is my pen mine.
✅ This is my pen.

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13.10 Interrogative Adjective

Used with nouns to ask questions.

• which, what, whose

Examples:

• Which book is yours?
• Whose car is this?

---

13.11 Distributive Adjective

Refers to one by one.

• each, every, either, neither

Examples:

• Each student was present.
• Every child needs love.

---

13.12 Proper Adjective

Formed from proper nouns.

Examples:

• Indian culture
• English language
• Shakespearean drama

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13.13 Degrees of Comparison

Adjectives have three degrees:

1. Positive
2. Comparative
3. Superlative

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
tall	taller	tallest
good	better	best
beautiful	more beautiful	most beautiful

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13.14 Rules of Comparison

1. Add –er / –est for short adjectives
2. Use more / most for long adjectives
3. Irregular forms must be memorized

❌ more better
✅ better

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13.15 Position of Adjectives

Adjectives are placed:

• Before noun
• After linking verbs

Examples:

• a smart boy
• The boy is smart.

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13.16 Order of Adjectives

Correct order:

Opinion → Size → Age → Shape → Color → Origin → Material → Noun

Example:

• a beautiful small old round brown Indian wooden table

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13.17 Common Errors

❌ She is more prettier than me.
✅ She is prettier than me.

❌ He has many informations.
✅ He has much information.

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13.18 Summary of the Chapter

• Adjective describes noun or pronoun
• Eight types of adjectives
• Three degrees of comparison
• Correct order is important

---

13.19 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the adjective:

1. She has a red dress.
2. Every student passed the exam.

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. This is the ____ (good) book.
2. He has ____ (little) money.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. She is the most tallest girl.
2. I have many sugar.

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13.20 Answer Key

Identify:

1. red
2. every

Fill in the blanks:

1. best
2. little

Corrections:

1. She is the tallest girl.
2. I have much sugar.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–14: Adverb

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14.1 Introduction

An adverb adds more information to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It tells us how, when, where, how often, or to what extent an action happens. Correct use of adverbs improves clarity, accuracy, and style in English.

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14.2 Definition of Adverb

📖 Definition:

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Examples:

• She speaks clearly.
• He is very honest.
• She runs quite fast.

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14.3 Importance of Adverbs

Adverbs help to:

• Describe actions clearly
• Express time, place, and manner
• Improve spoken and written English
• Avoid ambiguity

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14.4 Types of Adverbs

Adverbs are classified into eight main types:

1. Adverb of Manner
2. Adverb of Time
3. Adverb of Place
4. Adverb of Frequency
5. Adverb of Degree
6. Interrogative Adverb
7. Relative Adverb
8. Affirmation and Negation

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14.5 Adverb of Manner

Shows how an action is done.

Often ends in –ly.

Examples:

• He works hard.
• She sings sweetly.

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14.6 Adverb of Time

Shows when an action happens.

Examples:

• today, yesterday, now, soon

Example:

• I will meet you tomorrow.

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14.7 Adverb of Place

Shows where an action happens.

Examples:

• here, there, inside, outside

Example:

• She is standing outside.

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14.8 Adverb of Frequency

Shows how often an action happens.

Examples:

• always, often, sometimes, never

Example:

• He always speaks the truth.

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14.9 Adverb of Degree

Shows how much or to what extent.

Examples:

• very, quite, too, enough

Example:

• She is very intelligent.

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14.10 Interrogative Adverb

Used to ask questions.

• when, where, why, how

Examples:

• When did you come?
• Why are you late?

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14.11 Relative Adverb

Connects clauses.

• when, where, why

Examples:

• This is the place where I was born.

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14.12 Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation

• Affirmation: yes, surely, certainly
• Negation: no, not, never

Example:

• He will certainly help you.

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14.13 Position of Adverbs

Adverbs may be placed:

• Before the verb
• After the verb
• At the beginning or end

Examples:

• She often visits us.
• He speaks English fluently.

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14.14 Comparison of Adverbs

Like adjectives, adverbs have three degrees.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
fast	faster	fastest
well	better	best
carefully	more carefully	most carefully

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14.15 Adjective vs Adverb

Adjective	Adverb
Describes noun	Describes verb
He is slow.	He walks slowly.

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14.16 Common Errors

❌ She sings very good.
✅ She sings very well.

❌ He drives careless.
✅ He drives carelessly.

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14.17 Summary of the Chapter

• Adverb modifies verb, adjective, or adverb
• Eight types of adverbs
• Correct position and form are important
• Avoid adjective–adverb confusion

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14.18 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the adverb:

1. She speaks politely.
2. He is very kind.

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. He runs ____ (fast).
2. She is ____ (too/very) tired to walk.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. She dances beautiful.
2. He did the work careless.

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14.19 Answer Key

Identify:

1. politely
2. very

Fill in the blanks:

1. fast
2. too

Corrections:

1. She dances beautifully.
2. He did the work carelessly.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–15: Preposition

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15.1 Introduction

A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in a sentence. It usually indicates place, time, direction, cause, or manner. Correct use of prepositions is essential because even a small mistake can change the meaning of a sentence.

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15.2 Definition of Preposition

📖 Definition:

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation with another word in the sentence.

Examples:

• The book is on the table.
• She came after me.

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15.3 Importance of Prepositions

Prepositions help us to:

• Show location and time
• Express movement and direction
• Clarify relationships in sentences
• Speak and write accurately

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15.4 Common Prepositions

Some common prepositions are:

• in, on, at, by, with, for, from, to, of, under, over, between, among

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15.5 Preposition of Place

Shows where something is.

Examples:

• in the room
• on the table
• under the chair

Example sentence:

• The cat is under the bed.

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15.6 Preposition of Time

Shows when something happens.

Examples:

• at (time): at 5 o’clock
• on (day/date): on Monday
• in (month/year): in June

Example:

• He was born in 2005.

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15.7 Preposition of Direction

Shows movement towards something.

Examples:

• to, into, towards

Example:

• She went to school.

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15.8 Preposition of Manner

Shows how something is done.

Examples:

• by bus
• with care

Example:

• He solved the problem with ease.

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15.9 Preposition of Agent or Instrument

Used to show who or what performs an action.

• Agent: by
• Instrument: with

Examples:

• The letter was written by him.
• The wood was cut with a knife.

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15.10 Preposition Used in Phrases

Some phrases require fixed prepositions.

Examples:

• afraid of
• fond of
• depend on
• interested in

❌ He is fond for music.
✅ He is fond of music.

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15.11 Preposition at the End of a Sentence

In modern English, prepositions may come at the end.

Example:

• This is the boy I was talking about.

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15.12 Between vs Among

• Between – two persons or things
• Among – more than two

Examples:

• Between Ram and Shyam
• Among the students

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15.13 In, On, At (Common Confusion)

In	On	At
country, city	surface	exact point
in India	on the table	at the door

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15.14 Common Errors

❌ He is good in mathematics.
✅ He is good at mathematics.

❌ She is married with him.
✅ She is married to him.

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15.15 Summary of the Chapter

• Preposition shows relationship
• Used before noun or pronoun
• Different types for place, time, direction
• Correct usage avoids confusion

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15.16 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. The book is ___ the table.
2. He will come ___ Monday.
3. She is afraid ___ dogs.

B. Choose the correct preposition:

1. He is good ___ English. (in/at)
2. She lives ___ Delhi. (in/at)

C. Correct the sentences:

1. She is married with a doctor.
2. He is interested on music.

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15.17 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. on
2. on
3. of

Choose:

1. at
2. in

Corrections:

1. She is married to a doctor.
2. He is interested in music.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–16: Conjunction

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16.1 Introduction

A conjunction is a word used to join words, phrases, or clauses. Without conjunctions, sentences would be short, awkward, and disconnected. Conjunctions help us express ideas clearly and logically.

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16.2 Definition of Conjunction

📖 Definition:

A conjunction is a word that joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses.

Examples:

• Ram and Shyam are friends.
• He is poor but honest.

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16.3 Importance of Conjunctions

Conjunctions help to:

• Combine ideas
• Avoid repetition
• Improve sentence flow
• Express contrast, choice, reason, and result

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16.4 Types of Conjunctions

Conjunctions are mainly of three types:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
3. Correlative Conjunctions

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16.5 Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join equal parts of a sentence.

The seven coordinating conjunctions are remembered by FANBOYS:

• For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So

Examples:

• I wanted to go, but it was raining.
• She is smart and hardworking.

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16.6 Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

• because, although, if, when, while, since, unless, before, after

Examples:

• I stayed home because it was raining.
• She will come if you invite her.

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16.7 Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs.

Common Pairs:

• either…or
• neither…nor
• both…and
• not only…but also

Examples:

• Either you come or I go.
• She is not only intelligent but also hardworking.

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16.8 Conjunction vs Preposition

Conjunction	Preposition
Joins clauses	Shows relation
because he was late	because of rain

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16.9 Use of “And”, “But”, “Or”

• And – addition
• But – contrast
• Or – choice

Examples:

• She is poor but honest.

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16.10 Although vs Because

❌ Although he was ill, so he did not come.
✅ Although he was ill, he did not come.

(Never use although and so together.)

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16.11 As, Since, Because

• Because – clear reason
• Since/As – weaker reason

Example:

• He didn’t come because he was sick.

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16.12 Joining Sentences Using Conjunctions

Without conjunction:

• He is poor. He is honest.

With conjunction:

• He is poor but honest.

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16.13 Common Errors

❌ He is not only intelligent and hardworking.
✅ He is not only intelligent but also hardworking.

❌ Because he was tired so he slept.
✅ Because he was tired, he slept.

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16.14 Summary of the Chapter

• Conjunction joins words, phrases, clauses
• Three main types
• FANBOYS for coordinating conjunctions
• Correct pairing is essential

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16.15 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. I stayed at home ___ it was raining.
2. She is poor ___ honest.

B. Choose the correct conjunction:

1. He will come ___ you call him. (if/so)
2. She was tired ___ she continued working. (but/and)

C. Correct the sentences:

1. Although he is rich but he is unhappy.
2. Either you come and I go.

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16.16 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. because
2. but

Choose:

1. if
2. but

Corrections:

1. Although he is rich, he is unhappy.
2. Either you come or I go.

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📗 PART–2: PARTS OF SPEECH

Chapter–17: Interjection

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17.1 Introduction

An interjection is a word or short expression that shows sudden feelings or emotions. It does not have a grammatical relationship with other words in the sentence but adds emotion and emphasis to communication, especially in spoken English.

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17.2 Definition of Interjection

📖 Definition:

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses sudden emotion, feeling, or reaction.

Examples:

• Oh!
• Wow!
• Alas!

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17.3 Characteristics of Interjections

Interjections:

• Express emotions
• Stand alone or appear at sentence beginning
• Are followed by ! or ,
• Do not affect sentence grammar

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17.4 Types of Interjections

Interjections can be classified based on emotions:

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1. Interjection of Joy

Express happiness or pleasure.

Examples:

• Hurrah!
• Wow!

Sentence:

• Hurrah! We won the match.

---

2. Interjection of Sorrow

Express sadness or pain.

Examples:

• Alas!
• Oh no!

Sentence:

• Alas! The brave soldier is dead.

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3. Interjection of Surprise

Express sudden wonder or shock.

Examples:

• Oh!
• What!

Sentence:

• Oh! I didn’t expect this.

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4. Interjection of Approval

Express praise or appreciation.

Examples:

• Bravo!
• Well done!

Sentence:

• Bravo! You performed excellently.

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5. Interjection of Disapproval

Express dislike or rejection.

Examples:

• Ugh!
• Bah!

Sentence:

• Ugh! This food tastes awful.

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17.5 Interjection with Sentence

Interjections can appear:

• At the beginning
• In the middle
• At the end

Examples:

• Oh! I forgot my keys.
• I won the prize, wow!

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17.6 Punctuation with Interjections

• Strong emotion → !
• Mild emotion → ,

Examples:

• Wow!
• Oh, I see.

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17.7 Interjection vs Exclamatory Sentence

Interjection	Exclamatory Sentence
Single word	Complete sentence
Shows emotion	Shows emotion with structure
Wow!	What a beautiful day!

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17.8 Interjections in Modern English

Modern English uses:

• hey, oops, yeah, oh dear

Example:

• Oops! I dropped my phone.

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17.9 Overuse of Interjections

In formal writing:

• Avoid too many interjections
• Use limited expressions

Interjections are best suited for:

• Conversations
• Dialogues
• Informal writing

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17.10 Common Errors

❌ Alas, we won the match!
(Alas expresses sorrow, not joy)

✅ Hurrah! We won the match!

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17.11 Summary of the Chapter

• Interjection expresses emotion
• No grammatical relation with sentence
• Different types for different feelings
• Use punctuation carefully

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17.12 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the interjection:

1. Wow! This painting is amazing.
2. Alas! He failed the exam.

B. Choose the correct interjection:

1. ___! We have lost the game.
   (Hurrah / Alas)
2. ___! What a surprise!
   (Oh / Alas)

C. Rewrite using suitable interjection:

1. We are very happy today.

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17.13 Answer Key

Identify:

1. Wow
2. Alas

Choose:

1. Alas
2. Oh

Rewrite:

1. Hurrah! We are very happy today.

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📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–18: Agreement of Subject and Verb

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18.1 Introduction

The agreement of subject and verb (also called subject–verb agreement) is one of the most important rules in English grammar. A sentence becomes incorrect if the verb does not agree with its subject in number and person. This topic is extremely important for error detection, sentence correction, and competitive exams.

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18.2 What Is Subject–Verb Agreement?

📖 Definition:

The verb of a sentence must agree with its subject in number and person.

• Singular subject → singular verb
• Plural subject → plural verb

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18.3 Basic Rule of Agreement

Rule:

• Singular subject → verb with s/es
• Plural subject → base form of verb

Examples:

• He runs fast.
• They run fast.

❌ He run fast.
✅ He runs fast.

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18.4 Agreement with Pronouns

Subject	Correct Verb
I	am / have
He / She / It	is / has
You / We / They	are / have

Examples:

• I am ready.
• She has completed the work.

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18.5 Two Subjects Joined by “And”

Two subjects joined by and take a plural verb.

Example:

• Ram and Shyam are friends.

❗ Exception:
If two nouns refer to one person or idea, use singular verb.

• Bread and butter is his breakfast.

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18.6 Subjects Joined by “Or / Nor”

When subjects are joined by or / nor, the verb agrees with the nearest subject.

Example:

• Neither Ram nor his friends are coming.
• Either the boys or the teacher is present.

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18.7 Collective Nouns

Collective nouns usually take a singular verb.

Examples:

• The team is winning.
• The class is silent.

When members are considered separately:

• The team are arguing.

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18.8 Each, Every, Everyone

Words like each, every, everyone, everybody take singular verbs.

Examples:

• Each student has a book.
• Everyone is happy.

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18.9 Indefinite Pronouns

Pronoun	Verb
each, everyone, somebody	Singular
many, few, several	Plural

Examples:

• Someone is knocking.
• Many were absent.

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18.10 Agreement with “A Number of / The Number of”

• A number of → plural verb
• The number of → singular verb

Examples:

• A number of students are present.
• The number of students is increasing.

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18.11 Titles, Names, and Amounts

Titles of books, films, and subjects take singular verbs.

Examples:

• Gulliver’s Travels is interesting.
• Ten years is a long time.

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18.12 Subject Separated from Verb

Ignore phrases between subject and verb.

Example:

• The quality of these apples is good.

(Subject = quality)

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18.13 Agreement with “None”

• None is ready. (singular meaning)
• None are ready. (plural meaning)

Both are acceptable depending on meaning.

---

18.14 Common Errors

❌ Each of the boys have a pen.
✅ Each of the boys has a pen.

❌ The cost of these books are high.
✅ The cost of these books is high.

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18.15 Summary of the Chapter

• Verb must agree with subject
• Singular vs plural rules
• Special cases: each, either, collective nouns
• Important for exams

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18.16 Practice Exercises

A. Choose the correct verb:

1. Each of the students ___ (has/have) a book.
2. Bread and butter ___ (is/are) his breakfast.

B. Correct the sentences:

1. Neither Ram nor his friends is coming.
2. The number of boys are increasing.

C. Fill in the blanks:

1. Everyone ___ (know/knows) the answer.
2. A number of students ___ (was/were) absent.

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18.17 Answer Key

Choose:

1. has
2. is

Correct:

1. Neither Ram nor his friends are coming.
2. The number of boys is increasing.

Fill in the blanks:

1. knows
2. were

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📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–19: Active and Passive Voice

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19.1 Introduction

Voice shows whether the subject of a sentence does the action or receives the action. English has two voices:

• Active Voice
• Passive Voice

This chapter is extremely important for exams, writing skills, and sentence transformation.

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19.2 What Is Voice?

📖 Definition:

Voice is the form of a verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

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19.3 Active Voice

In active voice, the subject performs the action.

Structure:

Subject + Verb + Object

Examples:

• Ram writes a letter.
• The teacher teaches the students.

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19.4 Passive Voice

In passive voice, the subject receives the action.

Structure:

Object + is/am/are/was/were + V3 + by + Subject

Examples:

• A letter is written by Ram.
• The students are taught by the teacher.

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19.5 Why Passive Voice Is Used

Passive voice is used when:

• The doer is unknown
• The action is more important than the doer
• Formal or official writing is required

Example:

• The road was repaired.

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19.6 Rules for Changing Active to Passive

1. Object becomes subject
2. Subject becomes object
3. Verb changes into V3
4. Use suitable form of be
5. Add by before the doer

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19.7 Active to Passive (Tense-wise)

Present Indefinite:

• She writes a letter.
• A letter is written by her.

---

Present Continuous:

• She is writing a letter.
• A letter is being written by her.

---

Present Perfect:

• She has written a letter.
• A letter has been written by her.

---

Past Indefinite:

• She wrote a letter.
• A letter was written by her.

---

Past Continuous:

• She was writing a letter.
• A letter was being written by her.

---

Past Perfect:

• She had written a letter.
• A letter had been written by her.

---

Future Indefinite:

• She will write a letter.
• A letter will be written by her.

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19.8 Passive with Modal Verbs

Structure:

Modal + be + V3

Example:

• She can do this work.
• This work can be done by her.

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19.9 Passive without “By” Phrase

When the doer is unknown or unimportant:

• The thief was arrested.

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19.10 Sentences That Cannot Be Changed into Passive

1. Intransitive verbs:

• He sleeps. (No object)

2. Sentences without object:

• The baby cries.

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19.11 Active vs Passive (Comparison)

Active	Passive
Subject does action	Subject receives action
Direct & clear	Formal & indirect

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19.12 Common Errors

❌ The work is do by him.
✅ The work is done by him.

❌ A song was sang by her.
✅ A song was sung by her.

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19.13 Summary of the Chapter

• Two voices: active and passive
• Passive uses V3
• Tense-based transformation
• Important for exams & writing

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19.14 Practice Exercises

A. Change into passive:

1. She writes a letter.
2. They are playing football.

B. Change into active:

1. The work was completed by him.
2. The door was opened by the guard.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. The letter was wrote by her.
2. This work can done by you.

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19.15 Answer Key

Passive:

1. A letter is written by her.
2. Football is being played by them.

Active:

1. He completed the work.
2. The guard opened the door.

Corrections:

1. The letter was written by her.
2. This work can be done by you.

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📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–20: Direct and Indirect Speech (Narration)

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20.1 Introduction

When we report what someone has said, we use Direct Speech or Indirect Speech. This topic is also called Narration. It is one of the most important chapters for school exams, competitive exams, and spoken English.

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20.2 What Is Direct Speech?

In direct speech, the exact words of the speaker are quoted.

📖 Definition:

Direct speech repeats the speaker’s exact words.

Examples:

• He said, “I am busy.”
• She said, “I like tea.”

Quotation marks (“ ”) are used.

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20.3 What Is Indirect Speech?

In indirect speech, the speaker’s words are reported without quotation marks.

📖 Definition:

Indirect speech reports what the speaker said without quoting exact words.

Examples:

• He said that he was busy.
• She said that she liked tea.

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20.4 Basic Rules of Narration

When changing direct speech into indirect speech, we must change:

1. Tense
2. Pronouns
3. Time and place words

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20.5 Change of Pronouns

Direct	Indirect
I	he / she
We	they
My	his / her
Our	their

Example:

• He said, “I am ready.”
• He said that he was ready.

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20.6 Change of Tense

If the reporting verb is in the past tense, tense changes as follows:

Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
Present Indefinite	Past Indefinite
Present Continuous	Past Continuous
Present Perfect	Past Perfect
Past Indefinite	Past Perfect

Example:

• She said, “I write a letter.”
• She said that she wrote a letter.

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20.7 No Change of Tense

Tense does not change if:

• Reporting verb is in present or future
• Statement is a universal truth

Example:

• He says, “The sun rises in the east.”
• He says that the sun rises in the east.

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20.8 Change of Time and Place Words

Direct	Indirect
now	then
today	that day
tomorrow	the next day
yesterday	the previous day
here	there
this	that

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20.9 Assertive Sentences

Structure:

said / told + that + statement

Example:

• He said, “I am happy.”
• He said that he was happy.

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20.10 Interrogative Sentences

Rules:

• Remove question mark
• Use if / whether (yes/no questions)
• Use wh-word (what, why, etc.)

Example:

• She said, “Are you ready?”
• She asked if I was ready.

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20.11 Imperative Sentences

Rules:

• Use to for positive commands
• Use not to for negative commands

Verbs used:

• ordered, requested, advised, told

Example:

• He said, “Close the door.”
• He ordered me to close the door.

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20.12 Exclamatory Sentences

Rules:

• Change into assertive form
• Use words like exclaimed with joy/sorrow

Example:

• She said, “Alas! I am ruined.”
• She exclaimed with sorrow that she was ruined.

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20.13 Common Errors

❌ He said that he is busy.
✅ He said that he was busy.

❌ She asked me where was I going.
✅ She asked me where I was going.

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20.14 Summary of the Chapter

• Two types of speech
• Changes in tense, pronoun, time
• Different rules for sentence types
• Very important for exams

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20.15 Practice Exercises

A. Change into indirect speech:

1. He said, “I am tired.”
2. She said, “Do you like tea?”

B. Change into direct speech:

1. He said that he was ready.
2. She asked me if I was coming.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. He said that he will go.
2. She asked where was I living.

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20.16 Answer Key

Indirect:

1. He said that he was tired.
2. She asked if I liked tea.

Direct:

1. He said, “I am ready.”
2. She said to me, “Are you coming?”

Corrections:

1. He said that he would go.
2. She asked where I was living.

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📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–21: Transformation of Sentences

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21.1 Introduction

Transformation of sentences means changing the form of a sentence without changing its meaning. This chapter is very important for grammar accuracy, writing skills, and competitive exams, where questions often ask you to transform sentences in different ways.

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21.2 What Is Transformation of Sentences?

📖 Definition:

Transformation of sentences is the process of changing the form of a sentence without altering its meaning.

---

21.3 Types of Sentence Transformation

Common types include:

1. Assertive ↔ Negative
2. Assertive ↔ Interrogative
3. Active ↔ Passive
4. Direct ↔ Indirect
5. Affirmative ↔ Negative
6. Simple ↔ Complex ↔ Compound
7. Degree of Comparison

(Some of these have been covered earlier; here we revise and apply them.)

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21.4 Assertive to Negative (Without Changing Meaning)

Change using words like hardly, seldom, rarely, no sooner.

Example:

• He is very rich.
• He is not poor.

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21.5 Negative to Assertive

Example:

• He is not careless.
• He is careful.

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21.6 Assertive to Interrogative

Example:

• She is your sister.
• Is she your sister?

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21.7 Interrogative to Assertive

Example:

• Is this not a beautiful scene?
• This is a beautiful scene.

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21.8 Affirmative to Negative (Using “too…to”)

Example:

• He is very weak. He cannot walk.
• He is too weak to walk.

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21.9 Negative to Affirmative

Example:

• He is not old.
• He is young.

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21.10 Simple to Compound Sentence

Rule:

• Join two clauses using conjunctions (and, but, or)

Example:

• He worked hard. He passed the exam.
• He worked hard and passed the exam.

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21.11 Compound to Simple Sentence

Example:

• He is poor but honest.
• In spite of being poor, he is honest.

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21.12 Simple to Complex Sentence

Rule:

• Add a subordinate clause

Example:

• He worked hard to pass the exam.
• He worked hard so that he might pass the exam.

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21.13 Complex to Simple Sentence

Example:

• When the sun rose, the fog disappeared.
• On the rising of the sun, the fog disappeared.

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21.14 Degrees of Comparison

Positive → Comparative → Superlative

Example:

• Ram is as tall as Shyam.
• Shyam is not taller than Ram.

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21.15 Use of “No sooner…than”

Example:

• As soon as he arrived, the train left.
• No sooner did he arrive than the train left.

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21.16 Exclamatory to Assertive

Example:

• What a beautiful flower it is!
• It is a very beautiful flower.

---

21.17 Common Errors

❌ He is too weak that he cannot walk.
✅ He is too weak to walk.

❌ No sooner he came than it rained.
✅ No sooner did he come than it rained.

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21.18 Summary of the Chapter

• Transformation keeps meaning same
• Many sentence forms are interchangeable
• Requires grammar accuracy
• High-scoring exam topic

---

21.19 Practice Exercises

A. Change as directed:

1. He is very rich. (Negative)
2. She is your friend. (Interrogative)

B. Change the form:

1. He worked hard and succeeded. (Simple)
2. Although he is poor, he is honest. (Simple)

C. Correct the sentences:

1. He is so weak to walk.
2. No sooner he finished the work than he left.

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21.20 Answer Key

A:

1. He is not poor.
2. Is she your friend?

B:

1. He worked hard to succeed.
2. In spite of being poor, he is honest.

C:

1. He is too weak to walk.
2. No sooner did he finish the work than he left.

---

📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–22: Degree of Comparison

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22.1 Introduction

Adjectives and adverbs are used to compare qualities or actions. This comparison is called the degree of comparison. This chapter is very important for sentence correction, transformation, and competitive exams.

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22.2 What Is Degree of Comparison?

📖 Definition:

Degree of comparison shows the extent or level of quality of a person, place, or thing in comparison with others.

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22.3 Three Degrees of Comparison

There are three degrees:

1. Positive Degree
2. Comparative Degree
3. Superlative Degree

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22.4 Positive Degree

Shows quality without comparison.

Examples:

• Ram is tall.
• She runs fast.

Structure:

as + adjective/adverb + as

Example:

• Ram is as tall as Shyam.

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22.5 Comparative Degree

Compares two persons or things.

Examples:

• Ram is taller than Shyam.
• She runs faster than me.

Structure:

adjective + er / more + adjective + than

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22.6 Superlative Degree

Compares more than two persons or things.

Examples:

• Ram is the tallest boy in the class.
• She is the most intelligent student.

Structure:

the + adjective + est / most + adjective

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22.7 Formation of Degrees

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
tall	taller	tallest
happy	happier	happiest
good	better	best
beautiful	more beautiful	most beautiful

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22.8 Rules of Comparison

1. Do not use double comparison
   ❌ more better
   ✅ better
2. Use than with comparative
3. Use the with superlative

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22.9 Interchange of Degrees

Positive → Comparative:

• Ram is as strong as Shyam.
• Shyam is not stronger than Ram.

Comparative → Superlative:

• Ram is stronger than all other boys.
• Ram is the strongest boy.

---

22.10 Degree with “No other”

Structure:

Superlative + than any other

Example:

• Delhi is the largest city in India.

---

22.11 Degree with “One of the”

Example:

• He is one of the best players in the team.

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22.12 Adverbs in Comparison

Examples:

• He runs faster than me.
• She works the hardest.

---

22.13 Common Errors

❌ She is more prettier than her sister.
✅ She is prettier than her sister.

❌ He is the most strongest boy.
✅ He is the strongest boy.

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22.14 Summary of the Chapter

• Three degrees of comparison
• Correct forms are essential
• No double comparison
• High exam importance

---

22.15 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. Ram is ____ (tall) than Shyam.
2. This is the ____ (good) book.

B. Change the degree:

1. Ram is the strongest boy. (Comparative)
2. She is as intelligent as her sister. (Comparative)

C. Correct the sentences:

1. This is the most easiest question.
2. He is more better than me.

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22.16 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. taller
2. best

Change:

1. Ram is stronger than any other boy.
2. She is not more intelligent than her sister.

Corrections:

1. This is the easiest question.
2. He is better than me.

---

📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–23: Question Tags

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23.1 Introduction

A question tag is a short question added to the end of a statement. It is used to confirm information, ask for agreement, or make conversation polite and interactive. Question tags are very common in spoken English and frequently asked in grammar exams.

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23.2 What Is a Question Tag?

📖 Definition:

A question tag is a short question added to a statement to confirm or check information.

Examples:

• You are a student, aren’t you?
• She can sing well, can’t she?

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23.3 Basic Rule of Question Tags

Positive statement → Negative tag
Negative statement → Positive tag

Examples:

• He is honest, isn’t he?
• She is not late, is she?

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23.4 Structure of Question Tags

Structure:

Auxiliary / modal + subject pronoun

Example:

• You like tea, don’t you?

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23.5 Question Tags with Helping Verbs

Examples:

• She is working, isn’t she?
• They were playing, weren’t they?

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23.6 Question Tags with Simple Present / Past

Use do / does / did.

Examples:

• He plays cricket, doesn’t he?
• She went home, didn’t she?

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23.7 Question Tags with Modal Verbs

Examples:

• You can swim, can’t you?
• She should study, shouldn’t she?

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23.8 Question Tags with “I am”

Special rule:

• I am late, aren’t I? (Not amn’t I)

---

23.9 Question Tags with Imperative Sentences

For commands:

• Open the door, will you?
• Don’t make noise, will you?

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23.10 Question Tags with “Let’s”

• Let’s go for a walk, shall we?

---

23.11 Question Tags with Negative Words

Words like:

• never, no one, nobody, nothing, hardly

Take positive tags.

Example:

• He never lies, does he?

---

23.12 Question Tags with “Everyone / Someone”

Use they in the tag.

Example:

• Everyone is ready, aren’t they?

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23.13 Intonation in Question Tags

• Rising tone → real question
• Falling tone → confirmation

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23.14 Common Errors

❌ He is your brother, isn’t it?
✅ He is your brother, isn’t he?

❌ I am late, amn’t I?
✅ I am late, aren’t I?

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23.15 Summary of the Chapter

• Question tags confirm statements
• Positive ↔ Negative rule
• Special cases: I am, let’s, never
• Important for spoken English

---

23.16 Practice Exercises

A. Add suitable question tags:

1. She is a doctor, ______?
2. You don’t like coffee, ______?

B. Choose the correct tag:

1. Let’s start the class, (shall we / will we)?
2. He never helps anyone, (does he / doesn’t he)?

C. Correct the sentences:

1. I am your friend, amn’t I?
2. Everyone was present, wasn’t he?

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23.17 Answer Key

Add tags:

1. isn’t she?
2. do you?

Choose:

1. shall we
2. does he

Corrections:

1. I am your friend, aren’t I?
2. Everyone was present, weren’t they?

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📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–24: Conditional Sentences

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24.1 Introduction

Conditional sentences are used to express conditions and their results. They show what will happen, what might happen, or what could have happened under certain conditions. This chapter is very important for spoken English, writing, and competitive exams.

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24.2 What Is a Conditional Sentence?

📖 Definition:

A conditional sentence expresses a condition and its possible result.

Conditional sentences usually have two parts:

• If-clause (condition)
• Main clause (result)

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24.3 Types of Conditional Sentences

There are four main types of conditional sentences:

1. Zero Conditional
2. First Conditional
3. Second Conditional
4. Third Conditional

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🔵 ZERO CONDITIONAL

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24.4 Zero Conditional

Used for general truths and scientific facts.

Structure:

If + present tense, present tense

Examples:

• If you heat ice, it melts.
• If it rains, the roads get wet.

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🟢 FIRST CONDITIONAL

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24.5 First Conditional

Used for real and possible future situations.

Structure:

If + present tense, will + V1

Examples:

• If you work hard, you will succeed.
• If it rains, I will stay at home.

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🟠 SECOND CONDITIONAL

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24.6 Second Conditional

Used for imaginary or unreal present situations.

Structure:

If + past tense, would + V1

Examples:

• If I were rich, I would help the poor.
• If he studied, he would pass.

👉 Note: Were is used for all subjects.

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🔴 THIRD CONDITIONAL

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24.7 Third Conditional

Used for imaginary situations in the past.

Structure:

If + had + V3, would have + V3

Examples:

• If she had worked hard, she would have passed.
• If I had known, I would have helped you.

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24.8 Mixed Conditionals

Used when time in if-clause and result clause is different.

Example:

• If I had studied hard, I would be successful now.

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24.9 Unless in Conditional Sentences

Unless means if not.

Example:

• You will not pass unless you study.
  (= if you do not study)

---

24.10 Conditional without “If”

Sometimes if is omitted.

Example:

• Had I known the truth, I would have acted differently.

---

24.11 Common Errors

❌ If he will come, I will help him.
✅ If he comes, I will help him.

❌ If I was rich, I would help you.
✅ If I were rich, I would help you.

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24.12 Summary of the Chapter

• Conditional sentences express condition and result
• Four main types
• Correct tense usage is essential
• Important for exams and speaking

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24.13 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. If it rains, we ___ (stay) at home.
2. If I ___ (be) a bird, I would fly.

B. Change the sentence:

1. You will fail if you do not work hard. (Use unless)
2. If she had come early, she would catch the train. (Correct)

C. Correct the sentences:

1. If he will work hard, he will succeed.
2. If I was you, I would accept the offer.

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24.14 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. will stay
2. were

Change:

1. You will fail unless you work hard.
2. If she had come early, she would have caught the train.

Corrections:

1. If he works hard, he will succeed.
2. If I were you, I would accept the offer.

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📙 PART–3: SENTENCE & SYNTAX

Chapter–25: Exclamatory and Imperative Sentences

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25.1 Introduction

Sentences are not only used to give information. Sometimes we express strong feelings or give orders, requests, or advice. Such sentences are called Exclamatory and Imperative sentences. This chapter is important for sentence transformation, punctuation, and narration.

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🔶 EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

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25.2 What Is an Exclamatory Sentence?

📖 Definition:

An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling such as joy, sorrow, surprise, anger, or admiration.

Examples:

• What a beautiful flower!
• How fast he runs!

Exclamatory sentences end with !

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25.3 Structure of Exclamatory Sentences

Common structures:

1. What + a/an + adjective + noun + subject + verb!
   • What a great leader he is!
2. How + adjective/adverb + subject + verb!
   • How beautifully she sings!

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25.4 Changing Exclamatory to Assertive

Example:

• What a beautiful day it is!
• It is a very beautiful day.

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25.5 Use of “What” and “How”

• Use what before noun
• Use how before adjective/adverb

❌ How a beautiful flower!
✅ What a beautiful flower!

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25.6 Common Errors (Exclamatory)

❌ What a nice day.
✅ What a nice day it is!

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🔷 IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

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25.7 What Is an Imperative Sentence?

📖 Definition:

An imperative sentence expresses an order, request, advice, or command.

The subject “you” is usually understood.

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25.8 Types of Imperative Sentences

1. Order/Command
   • Stand up.
2. Request
   • Please help me.
3. Advice
   • Work hard.
4. Prohibition
   • Do not waste time.

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25.9 Negative Imperative

Formed using do not / don’t.

Example:

• Don’t make noise.

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25.10 Polite Imperatives

Use please, kindly.

Example:

• Please sit down.

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25.11 Imperative to Assertive (Transformation)

Example:

• Close the door.
• You are advised to close the door.

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25.12 Imperative in Indirect Speech

Examples:

• He said, “Sit down.”
• He ordered me to sit down.

---

25.13 Punctuation in Imperatives

• Full stop (.) for normal command
• Exclamation mark (!) for strong command

---

25.14 Common Errors (Imperative)

❌ Don’t to waste time.
✅ Don’t waste time.

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25.15 Summary of the Chapter

• Exclamatory shows strong feeling
• Imperative gives command or advice
• Proper structure and punctuation needed
• Important for transformation and narration

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25.16 Practice Exercises

A. Identify the type:

1. What a brave soldier he is!
2. Please open the window.

B. Change into assertive:

1. How sweet the child is!
2. Close the gate.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. What beautiful scenery!
2. Don’t to run fast.

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25.17 Answer Key

Identify:

1. Exclamatory
2. Imperative

Assertive:

1. The child is very sweet.
2. You are requested to close the gate.

Corrections:

1. What beautiful scenery it is!
2. Don’t run fast.

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📕 PART–4: ERROR DETECTION & USAGE

Chapter–26: Common Grammar Errors

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26.1 Introduction

Even students who know grammar rules often make mistakes in daily writing, speaking, and exams. This chapter focuses on common grammar errors, their correct forms, and clear explanations. Mastering these errors can significantly improve exam scores and fluency.

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26.2 Errors in Subject–Verb Agreement

❌ He go to school daily.
✅ He goes to school daily.

❌ Each of the boys have a pen.
✅ Each of the boys has a pen.

👉 Rule: Singular subjects take singular verbs.

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26.3 Errors in Tense

❌ She has ate food.
✅ She has eaten food.

❌ I am knowing him.
✅ I know him.

👉 Stative verbs are not used in continuous tense.

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26.4 Errors in Use of Articles

❌ He is a honest man.
✅ He is an honest man.

❌ Sun rises in the east.
✅ The sun rises in the east.

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26.5 Errors in Use of Prepositions

❌ She is married with him.
✅ She is married to him.

❌ He is good in mathematics.
✅ He is good at mathematics.

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26.6 Errors in Pronouns

❌ Me and Ram are friends.
✅ Ram and I are friends.

❌ Everyone forgot their book.
✅ Everyone forgot his book. (formal)

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26.7 Errors in Adjectives and Adverbs

❌ She sings very good.
✅ She sings very well.

❌ This is the most easiest question.
✅ This is the easiest question.

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26.8 Errors in Comparison

❌ He is more better than me.
✅ He is better than me.

❌ She is senior than me.
✅ She is senior to me.

---

26.9 Errors in Voice

❌ The work is do by him.
✅ The work is done by him.

❌ A song was sang by her.
✅ A song was sung by her.

---

26.10 Errors in Narration

❌ He said that he is tired.
✅ He said that he was tired.

❌ She asked where was I going.
✅ She asked where I was going.

---

26.11 Errors with Modals

❌ He must to go now.
✅ He must go now.

❌ She can sings well.
✅ She can sing well.

---

26.12 Errors in Conjunctions

❌ Although he is poor but he is honest.
✅ Although he is poor, he is honest.

❌ Because he was late so he missed the bus.
✅ Because he was late, he missed the bus.

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26.13 Errors in Conditionals

❌ If he will come, I will help him.
✅ If he comes, I will help him.

❌ If I was rich, I would help you.
✅ If I were rich, I would help you.

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26.14 Errors in Negatives

❌ I didn’t see nothing.
✅ I didn’t see anything.

❌ He hardly doesn’t work.
✅ He hardly works.

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26.15 Errors in Sentence Structure

❌ Because he was ill.
✅ He did not come because he was ill.

❌ He very intelligent.
✅ He is very intelligent.

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26.16 Summary of the Chapter

• Grammar errors are common
• Most errors follow repeated patterns
• Understanding rules prevents mistakes
• Practice is key to accuracy

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26.17 Practice Exercises

A. Correct the sentences:

1. She don’t like tea.
2. He is more taller than me.
3. He said me that he was busy.

B. Identify the error:

1. Each of the boys have completed their work.
2. She is married with a doctor.

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26.18 Answer Key

Corrections:

1. She doesn’t like tea.
2. He is taller than me.
3. He told me that he was busy.

Identify:

1. have → has
2. with → to

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📕 PART–4: ERROR DETECTION & USAGE

Chapter–27: Confusing Words

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27.1 Introduction

English has many words that look or sound similar but have different meanings and uses. These are called confusing words. Such words often cause mistakes in exams, writing, and spoken English. This chapter explains the most commonly confused word pairs with clear rules and examples.

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27.2 Affect vs Effect

• Affect (verb): to influence
• Effect (noun): result

Examples:

• Smoking affects health.
• The effect of smoking is harmful.

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27.3 Accept vs Except

• Accept: to receive or agree
• Except: excluding

Examples:

• I accept your offer.
• Everyone was present except Ram.

---

27.4 Advice vs Advise

• Advice (noun)
• Advise (verb)

Examples:

• He gave me good advice.
• I advise you to work hard.

---

27.5 Principal vs Principle

• Principal: head of institution / main
• Principle: rule or belief

Examples:

• The principal addressed the students.
• Honesty is a good principle.

---

27.6 Loose vs Lose

• Loose: not tight
• Lose: to misplace

Examples:

• This shirt is loose.
• Do not lose your keys.

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27.7 Their vs There vs They’re

• Their: possession
• There: place
• They’re: they are

Examples:

• Their house is big.
• The book is there.
• They’re happy today.

---

27.8 Then vs Than

• Then: time
• Than: comparison

Examples:

• Finish your work, then go.
• She is taller than me.

---

27.9 Weather vs Whether

• Weather: climate
• Whether: choice/condition

Examples:

• The weather is pleasant.
• I don’t know whether he will come.

---

27.10 Stationary vs Stationery

• Stationary: not moving
• Stationery: writing materials

Examples:

• The car is stationary.
• I bought some stationery.

---

27.11 Borrow vs Lend

• Borrow: take
• Lend: give

Examples:

• May I borrow your pen?
• Please lend me your pen.

---

27.12 Hear vs Listen

• Hear: receive sound naturally
• Listen: hear with attention

Examples:

• I can hear music.
• Listen to me carefully.

---

27.13 Rise vs Raise

• Rise: go up (no object)
• Raise: lift (object required)

Examples:

• The sun rises in the east.
• He raised his hand.

---

27.14 Few vs A Few / Little vs A Little

• Few/Little: almost none (negative)
• A few/A little: some (positive)

Examples:

• Few students passed the exam.
• A few students passed the exam.

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27.15 Common Errors

❌ I will advice you.
✅ I will advise you.

❌ He loose his phone.
✅ He lost his phone.

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27.16 Summary of the Chapter

• Confusing words have different meanings
• Correct choice improves accuracy
• Very important for exams
• Practice avoids common mistakes

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27.17 Practice Exercises

A. Choose the correct word:

1. He did not ____ (accept/except) the gift.
2. The ____ (principal/principle) of the school is strict.
3. The weather is better ____ (then/than) yesterday.

B. Correct the sentences:

1. I will give you an advise.
2. They’re books are on the table.

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27.18 Answer Key

Choose:

1. accept
2. principal
3. than

Corrections:

1. I will give you advice.
2. Their books are on the table.

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📕 PART–4: ERROR DETECTION & USAGE

Chapter–28: One Word Substitution

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28.1 Introduction

One Word Substitution means replacing a group of words or a long phrase with a single word without changing the meaning. This topic is highly important for competitive exams, vocabulary building, and precise writing.

---

28.2 What Is One Word Substitution?

📖 Definition:

One word substitution is the use of a single word in place of a phrase or group of words.

---

28.3 Importance of One Word Substitution

• Improves vocabulary
• Makes writing concise
• Saves time in exams
• Enhances expression

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28.4 Common One Word Substitutions

Phrase	One Word
One who loves mankind	Philanthropist
One who hates mankind	Misanthrope
One who loves books	Bibliophile
One who hates women	Misogynist
One who hates marriage	Misogamist

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28.5 Persons and Professions

Phrase	One Word
One who treats sick people	Doctor
One who makes shoes	Cobbler
One who cuts hair	Barber
One who writes poetry	Poet
One who teaches	Teacher

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28.6 Habits and Qualities

Phrase	One Word
One who talks too much	Talkative
One who cannot read or write	Illiterate
One who believes in God	Theist
One who does not believe in God	Atheist

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28.7 Place and Situation

Phrase	One Word
A place where books are kept	Library
A place where birds are kept	Aviary
A place where sick are treated	Hospital
A place where soldiers live	Barracks

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28.8 Fear and Disorders

Phrase	One Word
Fear of heights	Acrophobia
Fear of water	Hydrophobia
Fear of darkness	Nyctophobia
Fear of fire	Pyrophobia

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28.9 Time and Frequency

Phrase	One Word
Happening once in a year	Annual
Happening every two years	Biennial
Happening at night	Nocturnal
Happening during day	Diurnal

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28.10 Speech and Writing

Phrase	One Word
Speech without preparation	Impromptu
Words spoken by oneself	Soliloquy
A short speech	Address

---

28.11 Government and Law

Phrase	One Word
Government by the people	Democracy
Government by one	Autocracy
Government by the rich	Plutocracy
Rule by religion	Theocracy

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28.12 Common Errors

❌ One who loves books – Book lover (informal)
✅ Bibliophile (correct)

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28.13 Summary of the Chapter

• One word replaces long phrase
• Improves precision and vocabulary
• Important for exams
• Regular practice required

---

28.14 Practice Exercises

A. Give one word:

1. One who loves animals
2. A place where aeroplanes are kept
3. Fear of death

B. Choose the correct word:

1. One who loves books –
   (Bibliophile / Philanthropist)

C. Correct the sentence:

1. He is a book lover. (Use one word)

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28.15 Answer Key

One word:

1. Zoophile
2. Hangar
3. Thanatophobia

Choose:

1. Bibliophile

Correct:

1. He is a bibliophile.

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📕 PART–4: ERROR DETECTION & USAGE

Chapter–29: Idioms and Phrases

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29.1 Introduction

Idioms and phrases are groups of words whose meanings are different from the literal meanings of the individual words. They are widely used in spoken English, writing, newspapers, and competitive exams. Learning idioms improves fluency, comprehension, and expression.

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29.2 What Is an Idiom?

📖 Definition:

An idiom is a group of words that has a meaning different from its literal meaning.

Example:

• To kick the bucket = to die

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29.3 What Is a Phrase?

A phrase is a group of words that works together but does not express a complete thought.

Example:

• in a hurry
• at all costs

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29.4 Importance of Idioms and Phrases

• Improve language fluency
• Make expression natural
• Important for exams and comprehension
• Used in newspapers and conversations

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29.5 Common Idioms and Their Meanings

Idiom	Meaning
At a loss	Confused
In hot water	In trouble
Once in a blue moon	Rarely
By hook or by crook	By any means
Break the ice	Start a conversation
At sixes and sevens	In confusion

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29.6 Idioms Related to Time

Idiom	Meaning
In the nick of time	Just in time
Time flies	Time passes quickly
Call it a day	Stop working

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29.7 Idioms Related to Effort and Success

Idiom	Meaning
Burn the midnight oil	Work late
Leave no stone unturned	Try every way
Hit the nail on the head	Say exactly right

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29.8 Idioms Related to Emotions

Idiom	Meaning
On cloud nine	Very happy
Down in the dumps	Sad
Lose heart	Become discouraged

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29.9 Idioms Related to Behaviour

Idiom	Meaning
Apple of one’s eye	Very dear
A man of words	Talkative
Crocodile tears	False sorrow

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29.10 Phrases with Prepositions

Phrase	Meaning
In favour of	Supporting
In spite of	Despite
On account of	Because of

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29.11 Use of Idioms in Sentences

Examples:

• He is the apple of his father’s eye.
• She passed the exam by hook or by crook.

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29.12 Common Errors

❌ He is in clouds nine.
✅ He is on cloud nine.

❌ She left no stones unturned.
✅ She left no stone unturned.

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29.13 Summary of the Chapter

• Idioms have figurative meanings
• Phrases add clarity
• Important for fluency and exams
• Must be used correctly

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29.14 Practice Exercises

A. Match the idiom:

1. At a loss
2. Burn the midnight oil

a) Work late
b) Confused

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. He solved the problem and ___ the nail on the head.
2. She was ___ cloud nine after winning the prize.

C. Correct the sentence:

1. He is at sixes and seven.

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29.15 Answer Key

Match:
1 – b
2 – a

Fill in the blanks:

1. hit
2. on

Correction:

1. He is at sixes and sevens.

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📕 PART–4: ERROR DETECTION & USAGE

Chapter–30: Phrasal Verbs

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30.1 Introduction

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb + preposition or adverb that creates a meaning different from the original verb. Phrasal verbs are widely used in spoken English, informal writing, newspapers, and competitive exams.

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30.2 What Is a Phrasal Verb?

📖 Definition:

A phrasal verb is a verb combined with a preposition or adverb that gives a new meaning.

Example:

• give up = quit
• look after = take care of

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30.3 Importance of Phrasal Verbs

• Essential for spoken English
• Common in daily conversation
• Frequently asked in exams
• Makes language natural

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30.4 Common Phrasal Verbs (A–E)

Phrasal Verb	Meaning
break down	stop working
bring up	raise (child/topic)
call off	cancel
carry on	continue
come across	find by chance

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30.5 Common Phrasal Verbs (F–L)

Phrasal Verb	Meaning
give up	quit
go on	continue
look after	take care of
look for	search
look into	investigate

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30.6 Common Phrasal Verbs (M–Z)

Phrasal Verb	Meaning
put off	postpone
put up with	tolerate
run into	meet suddenly
take off	remove / airplane rise
turn down	reject

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30.7 Transitive and Intransitive Phrasal Verbs

Transitive:

Require an object.

Example:

• She called off the meeting.

Intransitive:

Do not require an object.

Example:

• The car broke down.

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30.8 Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

Separable:

Object can come in between.

• Turn off the light.
• Turn the light off.

Inseparable:

Object cannot be separated.

• Look after the child. (Not look the child after)

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30.9 Phrasal Verbs with Pronouns

Pronoun must come between verb and particle.

Example:

• Turn it off.
  (Not turn off it)

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30.10 Phrasal Verbs in Sentences

Examples:

• He gave up smoking.
• She ran into an old friend.

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30.11 Common Errors

❌ She put off to the meeting.
✅ She put off the meeting.

❌ He turned down me.
✅ He turned me down.

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30.12 Difference Between Verb and Phrasal Verb

Verb	Phrasal Verb
look	look after
give	give up

Meaning changes completely.

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30.13 Summary of the Chapter

• Phrasal verbs = verb + particle
• Meaning often changes
• Very common in spoken English
• Important for exams

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30.14 Practice Exercises

A. Choose the correct phrasal verb:

1. The match was ___ due to rain.
   (called off / carried on)
2. He ___ smoking last year.
   (gave up / took off)

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. Please ___ the light before sleeping.
2. She cannot ___ with his behaviour.

C. Correct the sentences:

1. She looked the child after.
2. Turn off it.

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30.15 Answer Key

Choose:

1. called off
2. gave up

Fill in the blanks:

1. turn off
2. put up

Corrections:

1. She looked after the child.
2. Turn it off.

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📒 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–31: Articles (A, An, The)

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31.1 Introduction

Articles are small words, but they play a very important role in English grammar. Incorrect use of articles can completely change the meaning of a sentence. This chapter explains A, An, and The with clear rules, examples, common errors, and exam-focused practice.

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31.2 What Are Articles?

📖 Definition:

Articles are words used before nouns to show whether the noun is specific or general.

English has three articles:

1. A
2. An
3. The

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31.3 Types of Articles

1. Indefinite Articles – A, An
2. Definite Article – The

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🔵 INDEFINITE ARTICLES: A / AN

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31.4 Use of “A”

Use A before:

• Singular countable noun
• Words beginning with consonant sound

Examples:

• a boy
• a book
• a university (u = “yu” sound)

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31.5 Use of “An”

Use An before:

• Singular countable noun
• Words beginning with vowel sound

Examples:

• an apple
• an honest man (h is silent)
• an hour

❌ a honest man
✅ an honest man

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31.6 A vs An (Sound, Not Letter)

Word	Correct Article	Reason
university	a	consonant sound
hour	an	vowel sound
European	a	“yu” sound

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31.7 Use of “A / An”

Use A/An:

• For the first time mention
• To show profession
• To mean “one”

Examples:

• He is a teacher.
• I saw an elephant.

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🟢 DEFINITE ARTICLE: THE

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31.8 Use of “The”

Use The:

• Before specific nouns
• Before previously mentioned noun
• Before unique objects

Examples:

• The sun
• The Taj Mahal

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31.9 The with Geographical Names

Use The with:

• Rivers: the Ganga
• Seas/Oceans: the Indian Ocean
• Mountain ranges: the Himalayas

Do not use the with:

• Countries (India, France)
• Cities (Delhi, London)

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31.10 The with Superlatives and Ordinals

Examples:

• the best student
• the first prize

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31.11 Omission of Articles (No Article)

Do not use articles:

• Before abstract nouns (general sense)
• Before plural nouns (general sense)
• Before names of meals

Examples:

• Honesty is the best policy.
• Children like toys.
• I eat breakfast at 8.

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31.12 Common Errors

❌ He is the honest man.
✅ He is an honest man.

❌ She is going to school by the bus.
✅ She is going to school by bus.

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31.13 Summary of the Chapter

• A/An = indefinite
• The = definite
• Use depends on sound and meaning
• Very important for accuracy

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31.14 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. He is ___ honest man.
2. I saw ___ elephant in the zoo.
3. ___ sun rises in the east.

B. Choose the correct article:

1. ___ European country
2. ___ hour

C. Correct the sentences:

1. She is a best student.
2. He goes to the school daily.

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31.15 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. an
2. an
3. The

Choose:

1. a
2. an

Corrections:

1. She is the best student.
2. He goes to school daily.

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📒 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–32: Determiners

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32.1 Introduction

Determiners are words placed before nouns to limit, define, or clarify their meaning. They help us know which noun, how many, or whose. Correct use of determiners is essential for clear writing, spoken English, and exams.

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32.2 What Are Determiners?

📖 Definition:

Determiners are words placed before nouns to determine their reference.

Determiners come before adjectives and before nouns.

Example:

• this beautiful house
• my new book

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32.3 Types of Determiners

There are eight main types of determiners:

1. Articles
2. Demonstratives
3. Possessives
4. Quantifiers
5. Numbers
6. Distributives
7. Interrogatives
8. Predeterminers

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32.4 Demonstrative Determiners

Point out specific nouns.

• this, that, these, those

Examples:

• this pen
• those students

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32.5 Possessive Determiners

Show ownership.

• my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Examples:

• my house
• their car

❌ This is my book mine.
✅ This is my book.

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32.6 Quantifiers

Show quantity.

With Countable	With Uncountable
many, few	much, little
several	some
a few	a little

Examples:

• many students
• much water

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32.7 Numbers as Determiners

• Cardinal: one, two, three
• Ordinal: first, second

Examples:

• two books
• first prize

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32.8 Distributive Determiners

Refer to individuals in a group.

• each, every, either, neither

Examples:

• Each student is present.
• Neither answer is correct.

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32.9 Interrogative Determiners

Used to ask questions.

• which, what, whose

Examples:

• Which book is yours?
• Whose bag is this?

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32.10 Predeterminers

Used before other determiners.

• all, both, half

Examples:

• all the students
• both my brothers

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32.11 Order of Determiners

Correct order:

Predeterminer + Determiner + Adjective + Noun

Example:

• all these beautiful flowers

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32.12 Common Errors

❌ He has many furniture.
✅ He has much furniture.

❌ These kind of problems are common.
✅ This kind of problem is common.

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32.13 Summary of the Chapter

• Determiners define nouns
• Different types for different uses
• Correct order is important
• Avoid countable/uncountable errors

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32.14 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. ___ student was given a prize.
2. I have ___ little money.

B. Choose the correct determiner:

1. ___ of the boys are present. (All / Each)
2. ___ bag is this? (Whose / Which)

C. Correct the sentences:

1. He has few money.
2. Both the girls is present.

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32.15 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. Each
2. a

Choose:

1. All
2. Whose

Corrections:

1. He has little money.
2. Both the girls are present.

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📒 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–33: Modals (Modal Auxiliary Verbs)

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33.1 Introduction

Modal auxiliary verbs, commonly called modals, are used to express ability, possibility, permission, obligation, advice, intention, and probability. They are extremely important for spoken English, formal writing, and competitive exams.

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33.2 What Are Modals?

📖 Definition:

Modals are auxiliary verbs that express the mood, attitude, or intention of the speaker.

Modals are always followed by the base form (V1) of the verb.

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33.3 Common Modal Verbs

• can, could
• may, might
• will, would
• shall, should
• must, ought to
• need (to), dare (to)

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33.4 Use of “Can”

Can is used to express:

• Ability
• Permission (informal)
• Possibility

Examples:

• I can swim.
• Can I come in?

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33.5 Use of “Could”

Could is used for:

• Past ability
• Polite request
• Possibility

Examples:

• He could run fast in his youth.
• Could you help me?

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33.6 Use of “May”

May is used for:

• Permission (formal)
• Possibility

Examples:

• May I come in, sir?
• It may rain today.

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33.7 Use of “Might”

Might expresses weak possibility.

Example:

• She might come tomorrow.

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33.8 Use of “Must”

Must is used to show:

• Strong obligation
• Certainty

Examples:

• You must obey the rules.
• She must be at home.

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33.9 Use of “Should”

Should expresses:

• Advice
• Duty

Examples:

• You should work hard.
• We should respect elders.

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33.10 Use of “Ought to”

Ought to is similar to should.

Example:

• You ought to help the poor.

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33.11 Use of “Will”

Will expresses:

• Future intention
• Promise
• Willingness

Examples:

• I will help you.
• He will succeed.

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33.12 Use of “Would”

Would is used for:

• Polite request
• Habit in the past

Examples:

• Would you like some tea?
• He would walk every morning.

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33.13 Use of “Need” and “Dare”

As modals:

• You need not worry.
• He dare not speak.

As main verbs:

• You need to study.
• He dares to speak.

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33.14 Modals in Negative Sentences

Use not after modal.

Example:

• He cannot swim.
• You should not waste time.

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33.15 Modals in Questions

Modal comes before subject.

Example:

• Can you help me?
• Should I go now?

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33.16 Common Errors

❌ He must to go now.
✅ He must go now.

❌ She can sings well.
✅ She can sing well.

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33.17 Summary of the Chapter

• Modals show mood and attitude
• Followed by base verb
• Very important for spoken English
• Avoid “to” after modals

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33.18 Practice Exercises

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. You ___ (must/should) obey traffic rules.
2. ___ I come in, sir?

B. Choose the correct modal:

1. He ___ be at home now. (must/might)
2. You ___ work harder. (should/could)

C. Correct the sentences:

1. He can to swim.
2. You should to respect elders.

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33.19 Answer Key

Fill in the blanks:

1. must
2. May

Choose:

1. must
2. should

Corrections:

1. He can swim.
2. You should respect elders.

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📓 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–34: Paragraph Writing

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34.1 Introduction

Paragraph writing is the foundation of all forms of writing—essays, letters, reports, and answers in exams. A good paragraph expresses one main idea clearly and logically. This chapter will help you learn how to write clear, coherent, and exam-scoring paragraphs.

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34.2 What Is a Paragraph?

📖 Definition:

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develops one main idea.

A paragraph usually has:

1. Topic sentence
2. Supporting sentences
3. Concluding sentence

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34.3 Importance of Paragraph Writing

Paragraph writing helps to:

• Organize ideas clearly
• Improve writing skills
• Score well in exams
• Communicate thoughts effectively

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34.4 Structure of a Good Paragraph

1️⃣ Topic Sentence

• Introduces the main idea
• Usually the first sentence

Example:
Honesty is the most important quality in human life.

---

2️⃣ Supporting Sentences

• Explain or support the topic
• Give facts, examples, or reasons

---

3️⃣ Concluding Sentence

• Summarizes the idea
• Gives a closing thought

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34.5 Qualities of a Good Paragraph

A good paragraph should be:

• Unity – one main idea
• Coherence – logical flow
• Clarity – simple language
• Conciseness – no unnecessary words

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34.6 Types of Paragraphs

1. Descriptive Paragraph
2. Narrative Paragraph
3. Expository Paragraph
4. Argumentative Paragraph

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34.7 Descriptive Paragraph (Example)

Topic: My School

My school is one of the best schools in my city. It has a large building with clean classrooms and a big playground. The teachers are well-qualified and helpful. Students are encouraged to take part in sports and cultural activities. I feel proud to be a student of my school.

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34.8 Narrative Paragraph (Example)

Topic: A Memorable Day

Last Sunday was a memorable day in my life. I visited my grandparents after a long time. We spent the whole day together and shared many happy moments. The day filled my heart with joy and love.

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34.9 Expository Paragraph (Example)

Topic: Importance of Time

Time is the most valuable thing in life. Once lost, it never returns. A punctual person always succeeds in life. Students should learn to value time to achieve their goals.

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34.10 Argumentative Paragraph (Example)

Topic: Online Education

Online education has become very popular today. It provides learning opportunities to students from any place. However, lack of direct interaction is a disadvantage. Still, online education is useful when used properly.

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34.11 Paragraph Writing for Exams

Tips:

• Stick to the topic
• Use simple sentences
• Avoid spelling and grammar mistakes
• Keep it within word limit

---

34.12 Common Errors

❌ Writing multiple ideas in one paragraph
❌ No topic sentence
❌ Very long sentences

---

34.13 Useful Linking Words

• firstly, secondly
• however, therefore
• moreover, besides
• in conclusion

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34.14 Summary of the Chapter

• Paragraph has one main idea
• Three-part structure
• Different types of paragraphs
• Practice improves quality

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34.15 Practice Exercises

A. Write a paragraph on:

1. Importance of Discipline
2. My Favourite Teacher

B. Identify the topic sentence:

Trees are very useful to us. They give us oxygen and shade. They also provide fruits and medicines.

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34.16 Answer Key (Guidance)

Topic sentence:
Trees are very useful to us.

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📓 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–35: Letter Writing

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35.1 Introduction

Letter writing is an important skill used in exams, offices, schools, and daily life. A good letter should be clear, polite, and well-structured. This chapter covers formal and informal letters with formats, examples, and exam tips.

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35.2 What Is a Letter?

📖 Definition:

A letter is a written message sent by one person to another.

Letters are mainly of two types:

1. Informal Letters
2. Formal Letters

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✉️ INFORMAL LETTER

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35.3 Informal Letter

An informal letter is written to:

• Friends
• Relatives
• Family members

✍️ Format of Informal Letter

1. Sender’s Address
2. Date
3. Salutation
4. Body of the Letter
5. Closing
6. Signature

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35.4 Example of Informal Letter

Letter to a Friend Inviting Him to a Birthday Party

Address:
ABC Colony,
Delhi

Date:
10 March 2026

Dear Rahul,

I hope you are fine. I am writing this letter to invite you to my birthday party on 15 March. The party will be held at my home at 6 PM. All our friends will be there. I hope you will come and make the day special.

Yours lovingly,
Amit

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🏢 FORMAL LETTER

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35.5 Formal Letter

A formal letter is written to:

• Offices
• Principals
• Employers
• Officials

Language should be polite and formal.

---

35.6 Format of Formal Letter

1. Sender’s Address
2. Date
3. Receiver’s Address
4. Subject
5. Salutation
6. Body
7. Closing
8. Signature

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35.7 Example of Formal Letter

Letter to the Principal for Leave

From:
XYZ Colony,
Jaipur

Date:
12 March 2026

To
The Principal
ABC Public School
Jaipur

Subject: Application for Sick Leave

Respected Sir,

I respectfully beg to say that I am suffering from fever and have been advised complete rest by the doctor. Therefore, I request you to kindly grant me leave for two days.

Thanking you.

Yours obediently,
Ramesh
Class X-A

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35.8 Do’s and Don’ts of Letter Writing

✅ Use correct format
✅ Be clear and polite
❌ Do not use slang
❌ Avoid grammatical mistakes

---

35.9 Common Errors

❌ Missing subject line
❌ Informal language in formal letters
❌ Long and confusing sentences

---

35.10 Summary of the Chapter

• Two types of letters
• Proper format is essential
• Tone should match purpose
• Very important for exams

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35.11 Practice Exercises

A. Write an informal letter to your friend about your holiday.

B. Write a formal letter to the municipal corporation about dirty roads in your area.

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📓 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–36: Essay Writing

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36.1 Introduction

Essay writing is one of the most important skills in English. Essays test a student’s thinking ability, language command, organization of ideas, and grammar. This chapter explains types of essays, structure, examples, and exam-oriented tips.

---

36.2 What Is an Essay?

📖 Definition:

An essay is a piece of writing that presents ideas, thoughts, or arguments on a particular topic in an organized manner.

---

36.3 Structure of an Essay

A good essay has three main parts:

1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion

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36.4 Introduction

• Introduces the topic
• Attracts the reader’s interest
• Should be short and clear

Example:

Education is the backbone of a nation. It plays an important role in shaping the future of society.

---

36.5 Body of the Essay

• Contains main points
• Each paragraph explains one idea
• Use examples and facts

---

36.6 Conclusion

• Summarizes the essay
• Gives final opinion or message

Example:

In conclusion, education empowers individuals and strengthens the nation.

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36.7 Types of Essays

1. Narrative Essay
2. Descriptive Essay
3. Expository Essay
4. Argumentative Essay

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36.8 Narrative Essay (Example)

Topic: A Visit to a Hill Station

Last summer, I visited Shimla with my family. The cool climate and beautiful scenery refreshed our minds. The trip remains a memorable experience in my life.

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36.9 Descriptive Essay (Example)

Topic: My Best Friend

My best friend is honest, helpful, and hardworking. He always stands by me in difficult times. I feel lucky to have such a friend.

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36.10 Expository Essay (Example)

Topic: Importance of Trees

Trees are essential for life. They provide oxygen, fruits, and shelter. Without trees, life on earth would be impossible.

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36.11 Argumentative Essay (Example)

Topic: Online Education

Online education has gained popularity in recent years. It offers flexibility, but lack of face-to-face interaction is a drawback. A balanced approach is necessary.

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36.12 Essay Writing for Exams

Tips:

• Understand the topic clearly
• Plan before writing
• Use simple language
• Avoid grammatical mistakes
• Stick to word limit

---

36.13 Common Errors

❌ Writing without planning
❌ Repeating ideas
❌ Poor conclusion

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36.14 Useful Linking Words

• Firstly, secondly
• However, therefore
• Moreover, in addition
• In conclusion

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36.15 Summary of the Chapter

• Essay has three parts
• Different types of essays
• Clarity and structure are key
• Practice improves performance

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36.16 Practice Exercises

A. Write an essay on:

1. Importance of Discipline
2. Role of Students in Nation Building

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📓 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–37: Precis Writing

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37.1 Introduction

Precis writing is the art of summarizing a passage in a clear, concise, and accurate manner. It tests a student’s ability to understand, analyze, and express ideas briefly. This topic is very important for board exams, competitive exams, and language proficiency.

---

37.2 What Is Precis Writing?

📖 Definition:

A precis is a brief and clear summary of a passage, preserving the original meaning and main ideas.

A precis is usually one-third of the original passage.

---

37.3 Objectives of Precis Writing

• Test comprehension
• Improve summarizing skills
• Develop clarity and precision
• Remove unnecessary details

---

37.4 Characteristics of a Good Precis

A good precis:

• Is brief and complete
• Retains main ideas
• Is written in own words
• Is grammatically correct
• Has a suitable title

---

37.5 Steps in Precis Writing

1. Read the passage carefully
2. Understand the main idea
3. Identify important points
4. Omit examples and repetitions
5. Write in your own words
6. Give a suitable title

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37.6 Do’s and Don’ts

✅ Use indirect speech
✅ Write in third person
❌ Do not copy sentences
❌ Do not add personal opinion

---

37.7 Language Used in Precis

• Simple and direct
• Clear sentences
• Formal tone

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37.8 Example Passage (Short)

Reading books is a good habit. It improves knowledge and sharpens the mind. Books also provide entertainment and relaxation. A person who reads regularly becomes wise and thoughtful.

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37.9 Sample Precis

Title: Importance of Reading

Reading books is a beneficial habit that increases knowledge, sharpens the mind, and provides relaxation. Regular reading helps a person become wise and thoughtful.

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37.10 Common Errors

❌ Copying sentences
❌ Writing too long
❌ Missing main idea

---

37.11 Precis Title

• Short
• Relevant
• Reflects central idea

Examples:

• Value of Time
• Power of Education

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37.12 Summary of the Chapter

• Precis is a summary
• Should be concise and accurate
• Written in own words
• Requires practice

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37.13 Practice Exercises

A. Write a precis of the following passage:

Time is precious and once lost cannot be regained. A punctual person always succeeds in life. Time management is the key to success.

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37.14 Suggested Answer

Title: Value of Time

Time is very valuable and irrecoverable. Punctuality and proper time management lead to success in life.

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📓 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–38: Comprehension Passage

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38.1 Introduction

A comprehension passage tests a student’s ability to read, understand, and interpret a given text. It evaluates vocabulary, grammar, inference, and analytical skills. This chapter is extremely important for school exams, competitive exams, and language proficiency tests.

---

38.2 What Is Reading Comprehension?

📖 Definition:

Reading comprehension is the ability to read a passage carefully and answer questions based on its content.

---

38.3 Objectives of Comprehension

Comprehension tests help to assess:

• Understanding of the passage
• Ability to find main ideas
• Vocabulary knowledge
• Logical thinking

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38.4 Types of Questions in Comprehension

1. Factual Questions – Direct answers from passage
2. Inferential Questions – Implied meaning
3. Vocabulary Questions – Word meanings
4. Title/Theme Questions – Central idea
5. True/False Statements

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38.5 How to Attempt a Comprehension Passage

1. Read the passage carefully
2. Read the questions
3. Underline important points
4. Answer in simple sentences
5. Avoid copying full lines

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38.6 Common Mistakes to Avoid

❌ Guessing without reading
❌ Copy-paste answers
❌ Ignoring instructions
❌ Writing long answers

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38.7 Sample Comprehension Passage

Passage:
Discipline is the key to success in life. A disciplined person knows the value of time and works systematically. Discipline helps students focus on their goals and develop good habits. Without discipline, life becomes disorganized and unproductive.

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38.8 Questions Based on the Passage

1. What is the key to success in life?
2. How does discipline help students?
3. Find a word from the passage that means “planned manner”.
4. Give a suitable title to the passage.

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38.9 Answers

1. Discipline is the key to success in life.
2. Discipline helps students focus on their goals and develop good habits.
3. systematically
4. Importance of Discipline

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38.10 Vocabulary in Context

Understanding words from context is essential.

Example:

• productive = useful, efficient

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38.11 True / False Type

• Discipline makes life organized. → True
• Discipline wastes time. → False

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38.12 Tips for Scoring High

✅ Read silently and carefully
✅ Answer to the point
✅ Use correct grammar
✅ Manage time wisely

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38.13 Summary of the Chapter

• Comprehension tests understanding
• Different types of questions
• Practice improves speed and accuracy
• Very important for exams

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38.14 Practice Exercise

Read the passage and answer the questions:

Passage:
Hard work is essential for success. Luck may help sometimes, but without hard work, success cannot be achieved. Great people have always emphasized the importance of hard work.

Questions:

1. What is essential for success?
2. What cannot be achieved without hard work?
3. Find a word meaning “stressed”.
4. Suggest a suitable title.

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38.15 Suggested Answers

1. Hard work is essential for success.
2. Success cannot be achieved without hard work.
3. emphasized
4. Value of Hard Work

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📓 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–39: Story Writing

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39.1 Introduction

Story writing is a creative form of writing that tests a student’s imagination, expression, grammar, and coherence. It is commonly asked in school exams and competitive exams. A good story should be interesting, meaningful, and well-structured.

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39.2 What Is a Story?

📖 Definition:

A story is a narration of events—real or imaginary—presented in a sequence with a message or moral.

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39.3 Elements of a Good Story

A good story has the following elements:

1. Characters – people or animals in the story
2. Setting – place and time
3. Plot – sequence of events
4. Conflict – problem or challenge
5. Climax – turning point
6. Conclusion – ending with a moral

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39.4 Types of Story Writing

1. Moral Stories
2. Picture-based Stories
3. Outline-based Stories
4. Beginning/Ending Given Stories

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39.5 Steps to Write a Good Story

1. Read the question carefully
2. Understand the outline/picture
3. Plan the beginning, middle, and end
4. Use simple and correct language
5. End with a moral

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39.6 Moral Story (Example)

Title: The Honest Woodcutter

Once there lived a poor woodcutter near a forest. One day, while cutting wood near a river, his axe fell into the water. He began to weep. A fairy appeared and brought out a golden axe, but the woodcutter refused it. She then brought a silver axe, which he also refused. Finally, she brought his iron axe, which he accepted happily. Pleased with his honesty, the fairy rewarded him with all three axes.

Moral: Honesty is the best policy.

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39.7 Outline-Based Story (Example)

Outline:
A thirsty crow → finds a pot → water low → drops stones → water rises → drinks water

Story:

A crow was very thirsty on a hot day. It searched for water everywhere. At last, it found a pot with little water in it. The crow thought of a clever idea. It picked up small stones and dropped them into the pot. Slowly, the water level rose. The crow drank the water and flew away happily.

Moral: Where there is a will, there is a way.

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39.8 Picture-Based Story (Guidance)

• Describe what you see
• Create a sequence of events
• Add imagination carefully
• Give a suitable moral

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39.9 Beginning or Ending Given

Beginning Given:

A poor farmer lived in a village…

You should:

• Continue logically
• Introduce problem and solution
• End with a moral

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39.10 Language Tips for Story Writing

✅ Use past tense
✅ Use linking words (then, suddenly, finally)
✅ Use simple sentences
❌ Avoid very long sentences

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39.11 Common Errors

❌ No moral
❌ Poor sequence of events
❌ Spelling and grammar mistakes

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39.12 Summary of the Chapter

• Story writing needs imagination and structure
• Clear beginning, middle, and end
• Moral is important
• Practice improves creativity

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39.13 Practice Exercises

A. Write a story on the outline:

Greedy dog → bone in mouth → sees reflection → jumps → loses bone

B. Complete the story:

Once a lion was sleeping in the forest…

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39.14 Suggested Moral (Guidance)

• Greed leads to loss
• Kindness is never wasted

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📓 PART–5: WRITING & APPLIED GRAMMAR

Chapter–40: Dialogue Writing

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40.1 Introduction

Dialogue writing is the art of writing a conversation between two or more persons. It tests a student’s spoken English skills, grammar, vocabulary, and understanding of real-life situations. Dialogue writing is very important for school exams and practical communication.

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40.2 What Is a Dialogue?

📖 Definition:

A dialogue is a written conversation between two or more speakers.

Dialogues reflect natural speech, emotions, and interactions.

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40.3 Features of a Good Dialogue

A good dialogue should be:

• Natural and realistic
• Grammatically correct
• Relevant to the topic
• Brief and clear

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40.4 Format of Dialogue Writing

• Write the speaker’s name followed by a colon
• Use short and clear sentences
• Avoid narration in between

Example:

Ravi: How are you?
Amit: I am fine. What about you?

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40.5 Types of Dialogue Writing

1. Dialogue between two friends
2. Dialogue between teacher and student
3. Dialogue between customer and shopkeeper
4. Dialogue based on a situation

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40.6 Example 1: Dialogue Between Two Friends

Topic: Preparation for Exams

Rohit: Exams are near. Are you prepared?
Aman: Yes, I have started my revision. What about you?
Rohit: I am also studying regularly. Let’s revise together.
Aman: That’s a good idea.

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40.7 Example 2: Dialogue Between Teacher and Student

Topic: Leave Application

Teacher: Why were you absent yesterday?
Student: I was ill, sir.
Teacher: Did you complete the homework?
Student: Yes, sir. I completed it today.

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40.8 Example 3: Dialogue Between Customer and Shopkeeper

Topic: Buying a Book

Customer: Do you have this grammar book?
Shopkeeper: Yes, we do.
Customer: What is the price?
Shopkeeper: It costs two hundred rupees.

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40.9 Tips for Exam Dialogue Writing

✅ Read the question carefully
✅ Stick to the situation
✅ Keep dialogues short
✅ Use polite language where required

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40.10 Common Errors

❌ Writing long paragraphs instead of dialogues
❌ Wrong tense usage
❌ Informal language in formal situations

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40.11 Dialogue to Indirect Speech (Basic Idea)

Example:

Direct:
Ravi said, “Where are you going?”

Indirect:
Ravi asked where I was going.

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40.12 Summary of the Chapter

• Dialogue is written conversation
• Should sound natural
• Grammar and clarity are essential
• Practice improves confidence

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40.13 Practice Exercises

A. Write a dialogue between two students discussing online classes.

B. Write a dialogue between a doctor and a patient.

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